established and as germs of diocesan organizations bore fruit in the foundation of the see of Caracas in Venezuela in 1531; that of Lima, Peru, in 1539; of Chiquisaca, Bolivia, in 1551; and of Santiago, Chile, in 1561. Brazil was entered in 1500 by Franciscans who were followed half-a-century later by Jesuits. The first Brazilian see was founded at Bahai in 1561; in La Plata, now Argentina, the see of Cordova was founded in 1570, and there in course of time the Jesuits built up a magnificent college. In Central America, Franciscans began their work of education and conversion in Costa Rica in 1560, and during the last 30 years of the century friars labored successfully in Guatemala, teaching the arts of civilized life along with the doctrines of salvation. Early in the 17th century, Jesuit fathers entered Acadia (Nova Scotia) and Canada, and in 1659 the first episcopal diocese in the region was organized at Montreal. Torture and martyrdom did not deter these brave champions and pioneers of Christianity and civilization, and the development of the United States followed the pioneer growth of Catholic congregations and schools among the native Indians. In the first half of the 19th century, the Indian nations of the Rocky Mountains and Northwest Territories (American and Canadian) were pagan. The Jesuit Father De Smet made the long and dangerous journey from Saint Louis, Mo., to the headquarters of the Flathead nation in Montana, inaugurated the introduction of Christianity and prepared the way for the advent of younger members of the order. See CATHOLIC INDIAN MISSIONS IN THE UNITED STATES.

INDIANS, Education of the. Indian education as formerly conducted in the United States was in no way the outcome of any deliberate plan on the part of the Federal government, but was directly descended from the first attempts to teach the Indians of Virginia, and particularly from like beginnings in Massachusetts, where the remarkable results of John Eliot (q.v.) were achieved.

Eliot's Work.- Eliot was actuated by high motives, and his simple measures were chosen with consummate wisdom. Having familiarized himself with the language, disposition and character of his Indians, he secured their confidence and respect. Those who would follow him he gathered in towns, where he taught them the liberties and responsibilities of township government and the devices and institutions of civilized life, among which the Church and the school naturally occupied places of honor. A number of "choice Indian youths" he induced to attend English schools that they might prepare themselves for missionary work among their own people. He was warmly supported by "the corporation for the propagation of the Gospel in foreign parts," by the General Court of Massachusetts, and particularly by Daniel Gookins, the official superintendent of the Indians in Massachusetts. Eliot began his work in 1646. In 1674 there were 14 towns of "praying Indians," whose schools and churches, in the majority of instances, were administered by educated natives, and an Indian college had been founded at Cambridge. Yet in due time this success was swept away by the fears and prejudices which developed under the baneful influences of the Indian wars. Similar successful

work under the direction of John Cotton and Richard Bourne in Plymouth colony shared the same fate.

Other Endeavors.- Followers of Eliot in the 18th century were John Sergeant at Stockbridge, Mass., and Eleazer Wheelock in Connecticut and New Hampshire. The work of Sergeant, which involved the establishment of day schools, of a boarding-school and an experimental "outing system," was almost ideal in conception, but ended with the deportation of his Indians to the West. Dr. Wheelock's labors led to the establishment of an effective training school and, indirectly, to the creation of Dartmouth College "for the education and instruction of youths of the Indian tribes in this land in reading, writing and all parts of learning which shall appear necessary and expedient for civilizing and christianizing the children of pagans, as well as in all liberal arts and sciences, and also of English youths and any others." Only the last purpose was destined to achieve

ment.

Surviving Influences.- But in spite of external failure, the spirit and much of the form of these early enterprises persisted. Their impress was until recently observable in almost every prominent feature of the Indian-school organization of the United States, notably in the establishment of day schools in or near Indian villages as a means of domestic and industrial uplifting of Indian family and village life; of industrial boarding-schools in territory occupied by Indians, to introduce among the young a taste for the refinements, duties and responsibilities of civilization; of advanced training-schools in civilized English-speaking communities for the fuller equipment of "choice Indian youths" for full citizenship in such communities, or for missionary work in the ideals, institutions and arts of civilization among their own people. It is still seen in the universal stress in all schools upon instruction in husbandry, certain trades and domestic arts; in the "outing system," which places partially educated Indian girls and boys as paid helpers in suitable English-speaking families, and affords them instruction in the ordinary public schools; and in the importance attached to religious and ethical training.

Wrong Departures.- On the other hand, it is to be deplored that a number of valuable features of the early schools were later abandoned, and even supplanted by opposite tendencies the unintelligent warfare against the Indian idiom; the introduction of certain brutalities of military discipline; an equally mistaken effort to wean Indian youth from Indian association by throwing contempt upon the Indian and by stimulating a feeling akin to hatred of Indian family ties; and in general a policy of compulsion and repression, rather than a spirit of development and benevolent helpfulness. Serious harm came to government schools because patronage entered as a factor in the appointment of officers and employees. Thanks to the Indian Rights Association, the Mohonk Conference, and a number of other societies, in 1893 civil-service rules were applied to employees of the Indian schools.

History of Organization.- The successive steps in the organization of Indian schools have been as follows: After the Revolution little heed was paid to Indian education for 30 years.

Only minor appropriations are recorded on the basis of treaties with a few tribes.. But in the first quarter of the 19th century a religious revival directed attention to Indian education as a Christian and national duty. Congress responded in 1819 with an appropriation of $10,000 in addition to certain treaty obligations. In 1820 the President was authorized to apply this sum annually in aid of societies and individuals engaged in the education of Indians. In 1823 $80,000 was expended in 21 schools maintained by missionary bodies, $12,000 having been granted by the government. In 1825 the number of such schools had risen to 38, their entire expenditure to $202,000, of which the government, directly and indirectly, had contributed $25,000. In 1848 there were reported in operation 16 manual-training schools, 87 boarding-schools and other schools. These schools continued to increase in number and efficiency up to 1873, under the control of missionary bodies, with scanty aid from the government, which had established only a few small day schools directly under treaty provisions. After 1873, however, the government entered upon an era of great activity in the establishment of strictly government schools. In 1877 Congress appropriated for schools, outside of treaty provisions, $20,000; in 1880, $75,000; in 1885, $992,800; in 1890, $1,364,568; in 1895, $2,060,695; in 1899, $2,638,390; in 1900, $2,936,080; 1901, $3,083,403.65; 1902, $3,251,254; 1910, $3,757,909; 1916, approximately $4,500,000. The expenditures have doubled within 20 years, and trebled within 25 years. During the quarter century the average attendance rose in more than like ratio. Increased appropriations naturally stimulated a desire on the part of the government to control expenditures. Moreover, the Constitution, by implication at least, forbids the appropriation of public funds for denominational purposes. Conclusions unfavorable to government support of missionary schools were further strengthened by the fact that the Roman Catholic Church had gradually outstripped the Protestant missionary bodies and was absorbing the lion's share of government support. In 1893 the Methodist Episcopal Church withdrew from participation in government aid, but without abandoning its schools. In 1895 this example was followed by the Presbyterians and Congregationalists; in 1896 by the Friends; and in 1897 by the remaining Protestant denominations. This left only the Catholics in the field with an appropriation, and in 1901 it was withdrawn from them also. In 1894 Congress had declared its policy of abandoning all support of denominational schools, and this policy has gradually been followed out.

The Schools of To-Day.- The present Indian schools under government control are day schools, reservation boarding-schools and nonreservation boarding-schools. These in 1916 numbered 324, including both boarding-schools and day schools; pupils are also maintained by contract in white public schools.

Day Schools.- Day schools in Indian villages or settlements are, as a rule, in charge of a male teacher and his wife, or, as in the Pueblos of New Mexico and in the Indian villages of southern California, of a white woman teacher and an Indian housekeeper. These teachers are usually employed for 10

months in the year; the male teacher's wife acts as housekeeper. The children spend five to eight hours during the five days of the week under the care of these employees, and return to their homes in the evening. The instruction is of the simplest character. The children are taught to speak, read and write English within narrow limits, to cipher, to draw and to sing. They get some rudimentary notions of geography, of natural history and of United States history. The methods are borrowed largely from the kindergarten and from object-teaching and much stress is laid upon habits of cleanliness and order, mutual kindliness and prompt obedience. The boys receive some instruction in the use of tools, in gardening and in some instances in the care of cows. The girls are taught sewing, cooking and other arts of housekeeping. In the poorer Indian communities a noon-day lunch of a few simple articles is furnished. While these day schools accomplish comparatively little in conventional schoolroom work, they serve as concrete illustrations of a civilized Christian home which the Indians learn to respect and, in an appreciable degree, to emulate. Moreover, they reconcile the InIdian with the idea of sending his children to school, and render him more willing in due time to entrust them to the care of boarding-schools, as well as more ready to appreciate and to accept the lessons of civilization. The most successful of 215 such schools in 1916 were located in Wisconsin, North Dakota and South Dakota; the least successful, probably, among the pueblos of New Mexico, where the Indians live in a state of half-civilization which they owe to their Mexican and Spanish antecedents, and which fully satisfies their ideals.

Reservation Boarding-Schools.-There were 74 of these in 1916, averaging 136 pupils. They are in charge of a superintendent who also has charge of the reservation activities and is assisted by a matron and such teachers, industrial and domestic helpers as the capacity and character of the school may require. In some cases a principal is in direct charge of the school, relieving the superintendent of the detail of management. In addition to regular teachers, the school is provided with a cook, a seamstress and a laundress, whose office it is not only to supervise their respective departments, but also to instruct the girls in these arts. For instruction of the boys there is a farmer, an industrial teacher, and, at larger schools, a tailor, a shoe and harness maker, a carpenter and a blacksmith. An experiment to provide for more methodical instruction in the use of tools, by expert manual-training teachers, failed because the Indian office would not afford a salary for this position sufficient to attract competent men. In 1894 the experiment of connecting kindergartens with these schools was tried, and proved eminently successful. At the present time there are 26 kindergartens connected with boardingschools, and the use of kindergarten methods and material has entered the primary classes in practically all these schools with similar good results. In the kindergarten the children spend from one and a half to two hours each halfday. In most of the other schools children spend half a day in the schoolroom, and the other half-day in domestic or industrial work of a character suited to their age. Experience has proved that half-day instruction, at first

forced upon the schools as an expedient, is commended by its good results.

The aim of the schoolroom work is to teach reading and writing within the usual limits of primary work; arithmetic for the needs of ordinary daily life; rudimentary geography and United States history; drawing and singing; the laws of hygienic living; garden and orchard work; and familiarity with the simpler requirements of agricultural and domestic industries suited to the locality. Moreover, in a few of the larger schools, the older boys have much cpportunity to acquiré skill in carpentry, blacksmithing, tailoring and shoemaking. These institutions are to the children not only school, but home and community. The institution gives them shelter, food and clothing; it accustoms them to habits of cleanliness and decency; it cultivates their æsthetic tastes; it labors to secure right moral attitude, and in its Sunday-school seeks to stimulate the religious life of the children.

In 1893, under civil-service regulations, there came some improvement. Still with reference to minor employees the superintendents, and even the Indian office, were powerless and frequently good superintendents were forced out of service by combinations against them among the appointees of the agent, or through the aid and influence of unscrupulous partisan inspectors or supervisors. But in 1896 all employees of the school service were placed under civil-service protection, and since that time there has been marked improvement in the conditions and work of these schools. To a certain degree these evils still persisted, however, because of the power and political bias of the agents; but of late the government has adopted the policy of replacing the agents with bonded school superintendents. There has been decided gain in the equipment, in the sanitary condition, in the general character of employees and in the conduct of the schools. For the Indian office, relieved of attention to office-seekers and their patrons, has been enabled to pay increased attention to the schools themselves. In the reservation boarding-schools instruction continues through 40 weeks; but often some children are kept at the school throughout the year.

Course of Study. In 1916 a decided step forward was taken by the adoption of a new course of study for Indian schools, covering 10 grades. The predominant feature under this course of study is industrial instruction. The first three years of the course are devoted to primary work. The next three years are spent in prevocational training, and the last four years to vocational training in which instruction in agriculture and allied subjects and household arts is given a prominent place. As a general rule the work of the day schools is limited to the first three years of the course, that of the reservation boarding-schools to the first six years, while in only some of the nonreservation schools is the full 10-year course, with its allied vocational training, given.

Non-Reservation Boarding-Schools.- Of these there are 25. The superintendents of these schools are bonded and directly responsible to the Indian office. The schools are, as a rule, located at a distance from the Indian country, and in the vicinity of American towns which afford contact with the amenities of civilized life. Members of many different

tribes are also brought together, and tribal antagonisms are broken down. The pupils are older than those at reservation schools, and some have had previous training in day schools or reservation boarding-schools. Because far away from their Indian homes, and near to English-speaking communities, they gain a better control of English; classroom work reaches far into the advanced grammar-school courses of study, with special stress upon language practice, arithmetic, geography, history, nature study, drawing and civil government. Instruction in domestic and industrial arts is made effective by frequent opportunities directly to observe their practical applicability and value. The principal reservation schools are at Carlisle, Pa.; Lawrence, Kan. (Haskell Institute); Chilocco, Okla.; Albuquerque and Santa Fe, N. M.; Phoenix, Ariz.; Riverside, Cal. (Sherman Institute); Chemawa, Ore.; Tacoma, Wash. (Cushman); Rapid City and Flandreau, S. D.; Genoa, Neb.; Pipestone, Minn.; and Tomah, Wis.

Contract Schools.- In addition to maintaining these strictly government schools, the Indian office up to 1901, as before said, paid by contract for the education of many hundreds of Indian pupils distributed in Catholic mission boarding-schools, at Lincoln Institute, Philadelphia, and at Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va. In the appropriation for that year, the aid was withdrawn from all but the last-named, where 120 pupils were contracted for. Besides these, the government since 1891 has endeavored to place Indians in white public schools where there are many whites and few Indians, as the most rapid means of civilization. The antagonism of local or State authorities to this coeducation has been gradually overcome and the number of children so enrolled is rapidly increasing.

Supervision.- Direction of the Indian schools rests with the Indian office, which is under the supervision of the Secretary of the Interior. In the Indian office the details of the work are entrusted to the education division, to which all reports are made, and by which all directions and orders are drafted and issued. The education division is aided in its work by a force of supervisors and by 21 supervising superintendents. The supervisors act in a general inspecting capacity, and the supervising superintendents are charged with the direct supervision of the schools and the work of the new course of study, particularly the industrial instruction. These supervisors and supervising superintendents have an advisory rather than an administrative status. consult with the superintendents and employees charged with the duty of giving instruction and report to the commissioner of Indian affairs the extent to which the various schools reach or fall short of reaching the ideals of the course of study, at the same time making recommendations as to the changes needed to raise the standard of the schools.

They

erected, more particularly by the Presbyterians, Methodists and Baptists. In due time, however, the Indian authorities began to make appropriations for these schools. Ultimately they took entire charge of them. Unfortunately, administrative affairs were largely in the hands of whites, who, by intermarriage or bribery, had been adopted into the tribes and there came over the schools, as well as over all other public interests, the blight of extreme partisanship and nepotism, which rapidly degraded them in character and efficiency. In 1898 the government at Washington assumed supervisory control over the affairs of all these tribes except the Seminoles. The conduct of the schools and orphan asylums in the four tribes involved was placed under the direction of a superintendent of schools in Indian Territory, appointed by the Secretary of the Interior. Under him there was for each of the tribes or nations a supervisor of schools, whose duty it was to inspect the educational institutions in his district and to assist in their organization and conduct. The superintendent reported to the commissioner of Indian affairs at Washington through_the United States inspector for the Indian Territory, who was his immediate superior. The initial report of this superintendent showed in the four tribes 24 boarding-schools, with an enrolment of 1,758 pupils and an average attendance of 1,480, taught and cared for by 234 employees at an annual expense of $236,824. These schools have now been made a part of the general system of schools, except that with the exception of the Cherokee Indian Training School, they are supported by tribal funds of the different tribes and are under the direct supervision of a supervisor for the Five Civilized Tribes. In 1916 there were 10 such schools, enrolling 1,227 pupils in charge of 147 employees. In 1916 there were also 590 pupils enrolled in schools maintained in the Five Tribes' territory and known as mission schools under contracts calling generally for a per capita of $108, but in the cases of two such institutions of $120.

INDICAN, a colorless substance chemically related to indigo, found in wood, in most plants yielding indigo-blue, and in human urine.

INDICATOR, in steam engineering, an instrument invented by James Watt, to record, graphically and automatically, the pressure in an engine cylinder at every point of the stroke. By means of the diagram that the indicator draws, it is possible to determine whether the valves of the engine are working correctly or not, and it is also possible to estimate the horse power that the engine is developing with considerable accuracy. Commercially, the steamengine indicator may be had in many forms; but all are based on the same fundamental principle, which will be understood by reference to the diagram presented in Fig. 1. paper upon which the indicator diagram is to be drawn is here supposed to be secured, flat, to a carriage which travels back and forth upon a track; the motion of the carriage corresponding precisely to the motion of the piston of the engine. In practice it would be inconvenient to have the carriage travel a distance equal to the whole stroke of the engine, and hence some form of reducing motion is used, so that the motion of the carriage may follow the motion

The

traces a diagram somewhat like that shown in the illustration. In practice, the paper upon which the diagram is drawn is usually wrapped about a cylindrical drum, which by rotating presents a new surface of paper for a new diagram. It follows the motion of the engine piston just as the carriage here shown. In Fig. 2 an enlarged view of an indicator card (or diagram) is given, together with the technical names of some of its more important parts. The arrows show the direction in which the pencil travels as the diagram is drawn. The "admission line" is the part that is drawn while the engine is in full communication with the boiler, and drawing steam from it. The angle marked "cut-off" corresponds to the instant at which the steam supply is cut off, and the expansion of the steam begins. The "expansion line" is drawn during the expansion of the steam; and on the return stroke, after the exhaust valve has opened, the "exhaust line" is drawn. When the exhaust valve has closed again, the steam remaining in the engine cylinder is compressed until the end of the stroke, the indicator meanwhile drawing the "compression line." The "atmospheric line" is the straight, horizontal line drawn by the engine when the connection is broken between the engine cylinder and the indicator cylinder, and the latter is open freely to the air. The "vacuum line is the line that would be drawn by the instrument under like circumstances, if a perfect vacuum could be maintained in the indicator cylinder. The "vacuum line," of course, must be drawn in by hand. It is parallel to the "atmospheric line," and at a distance below it corresponding to a pressure of about 14.7 pounds per square inch, on the scale to which the diagram is drawn. The diagram shown in Fig. 2 refers to a condensing engine. In a non-condensing engine, the exhaust line would not be lower than the atmospheric line, and would, in fact, be above it, if there were any sensible back-pressure in the engine during exhaust.

A considerable number of other mechanisms are termed indicators, as the stock-indicator, a receiving telegraph instrument that prints on an endless tape the figures, etc., of stock sales telegraphed; telegraph indicator, a telegraphic instrument having a vertical needle making indications on a dial, called also needle telegraph; circuit indicator, an upright galvanometer or the like for indicating the presence and character of an electric current; speed indicator, a gauge having usually a dial and pointer for indicating visually the speed of a machine, etc.; track-indicator, a registering device for mounting on a railway car or locomotive to record the variations of the track from accurate level and alignment.

For detailed information concerning the steam-engine indicator and its uses, consult Pray, Twenty Years with the Indicator'; Peabody, The Steam Engine Indicator'; also, for less extended treatment, any good book on steam engineering.

INDICTION, a period or cycle of 15 years. The origin of indiction as a chronological period is not known. Several writers have propounded theories explanatory of its origin, none of which are supported by any evidence. In the time of Athanasius it came into favor VOL 15-5

among ecclesiastical writers. Being adopted by the Popes, it came into general use during the Middle Ages. The time from which reckoning by indictions began is, according to some, 15 Sept. 312; according to others, 1 Sept. 312; but when this method was adopted by the Popes, it was ordered to be reckoned as beginning 1 Jan. 313. The latter only is now used, and is called the Papal Indiction. If we reckon backward to the beginning of the Christian era, it will be found that 1 A.D. corresponds to the fourth year of an indiction - hence, if to any given year of the Christian era three be added, and the sum divided by 15, the remainder will give the position of that year in an indictione.g., 1918 was the first year of the 108th Papal Indiction.

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INDICTMENT, in-dit'ment, a formal written charge made before a legal tribunal against an accused person or persons. The essential requisites of a valid indictment are — first, that the indictment be presented to some court having jurisdiction of the offense stated therein; second, that it appear to have been found by the grand jury of the proper county or district; third, that the indictment be found a true bill, and signed by the foreman of the grand jury; fourth, that it be framed with sufficient certainty; for this purpose the charge must contain a certain description of the crime or misdemeanor of which the defendant is accused, and a statement of the facts by which it is constituted, so as to identify the accusation; fifth, the indictment must be in the English language, but if any document in a foreign language, as a libel, be necessarily introduced, it should be set out in the original tongue, and then translated showing its application, 6 Term. 162. The formal requisites of an indictment are: First, the venue, which at common law should always be laid in the county where the offense has been committed, although the action be in its nature transitory, as in case of a battery. The venue is stated in the margin thus: "City and County of to wit." Second, the presentment, which must be in the present tense, and is ordinarily expressed in the following formula: "the grand inquest of the State of inquiring for the city and county aforesaid upon their oaths and affirmations present". Third, the name and addition of the defendant; but in case an error has been made in this respect, it is cured by the plea of the defendant. Fourth, the names of third persons, when they must be necessarily mentioned in the indictment, should be stated with certainty to a common intent, so as sufficiently to inform the defendant who are his accusers. When, however, the names of third persons cannot be ascertained, it is sufficient, in some cases, to state "a certain person or persons to the jurors aforesaid unknown." Fifth, the time when the offense was committed should, in general, be stated to be on a specific year and day. In some offenses, as in perjury, the day must be precisely stated, but although it is necessary that a day certain should be laid in the indictment, yet in general the prosecutor may give evidence of an offense committed on any other day previous to the finding of the indictment. Sixth, the offense must be properly described. This is done by stating the substantial circumstances necessary to show the nature of the