the mountainous character of the country, farming on a large scale cannot be profitable, which accounts for the small farms, the holdings on an average not being more than one cho, or 2.5 acres. Farms of more than five cho are rather rare exceptions.

Though there are many landlords in Japan, the land is much more equally distributed than in some parts of Europe. Nevertheless farmers cultivating small holdings are not all peasant proprietors, tenancy being by no means rare, which may be seen from the following table:

Ta Hata Farming on own land.... 49.04 per cent 60.09 per cent Tenancy.. 50.96 per cent 39.91 per cent These small farmers have to pay a heavy tax on each acre of land, central and local, and for tenants the rent is exceedingly high. The rent varies of course according to circumstances, but generally speaking it is equal to about onehalf to two-thirds of the produce in the case of paddy fields, aftercrops being excluded. The rent is generally paid in kind, rice in the case of paddy fields; soybean, barley, or sometimes money, in the case of dry-land fields. Metayage is very rare, and the tenancy is such that the rent is fixed according to custom, its value changing only very gradually. Owing to various historical causes and also to the fact that paddy fields, if not well drained, are unsuitable for the erection of buildings, the houses, which often serve both as dwellings and farm buildings, or which are in close connection with the latter, are grouped together into villages or built along the roadside. There are almost no enclosed farms with buildings in the centre, and it is very difficult to make students in Japan understand the meaning of farm in the Occidental sense of the word. Paddy and dry-land fields are divided into small parcels, side by side, having no fences, the paddy fields being separated by small ridges designed to hold the water of irrigation on the surface. Each parcel has its owner, but the fields being scattered involves a great drawback to the economy of labor.

These small farmers, often with less than one cho of land, frequently cultivate only one crop of rice, which is sown in seedbeds at the end of April or at the beginning of May and planted mainly in the month of June. The harvest time is from September till November. Where two crops are obtained, the field is cultivated soon after the harvest, and harvest time comes just before rice planting. The farmer's working days are therefore very unequally distributed. Where they have to cultivate dryland fields their labor is more equally distributed, but then the acreage they have to manage is often so small that the work on the farm is not enough for the full employment of their labor, and their income is naturally often not enough to live upon. So the farmers are obliged to resort to various industries other than farming. Formerly the farmers had to spin and weave their own clothes, but now that this is being done by factories, they have to seek other industries, such as sericulture, silk reeling, tea culture, mat making, sugar manufacture, starch manufacture, weaving ricestraw mats, making strawplait from barley, weaving cotton and silk goods as commercial

articles, making baskets from bamboo stem and making wood-shaving plait, etc. Keeping fowls and swine must be enumerated among these byindustries of Japanese farmers; also forest culture to obtain material to make charcoal, wooden articles, fishery and fishing, etc.

Small farmers sell their labor to large farmers or to factories, if any such exists in the neighborhood, or seek employment elsewhere. These small farmers, little less than 70 per cent of whom cultivate below one cho, with plenty of labor, most naturally farm their land in the most intensive manner possible, thoroughly cultivating, weeding, manuring, which may fairly be designated as gardening. Indeed in rice culture farmers spend some 20 to 25 days' labor or more per tan, which is equal to 80 or 100 days' labor per acre. For other cereals some 15 days must be allowed per tan. It would seem that the product should be very large. But the statistics show but an ordinary average. For example, rice gives, on an average, about 1.7 koku of husked grain per tan, which is equal to about 34 bushels per acre; barley little less than 1.6 koku or 32 bushels per acre; wheat some 1 koku or 20 bushels per acre, which certainly are not good crops. The figures quoted above may be too low; on the other hand, even very poor soils are sometimes cultivated by industrious farmers, year after year, successively without fallowing, as already shown. The climate also is not suited to barley and wheat. These facts must lower the average. So that if we take a medium crop at two to three koku per tan for rice (40 to 60 bushels per acre), or even four koku or more per tan (90 bushels per acre), in very good soil, and two to three koku per tan for barley, we are probably more nearly right as regards the product of intensive farming.

Notwithstanding such intensive farming, land population is too dense, and small farmers can hardly subsist, especially those who hire the land under the burden of heavy rent, and those who live in the colder districts. Immigration, inland and abroad, and employment elsewhere are depended on to obviate the bad conditions, but improvement in agriculture and more extended employment in by-industries are absolutely necessary to these farmers.

Recent Progress of Agriculture. With the downfall of the Shogunate and the opening of the country to foreign intercourse, great changes began to take place everywhere, both in political and in economical spheres. Under the influence of foreign trade and industrial development at home, the farmers lost some by-industries, such as spinning and weaving and some of their crops declined, as cotton, rape, ai, hemp, etc., but in many branches there has been great development and progress, as in sericulture and the tea industry, as the government statistics show.

The silk industry was formerly restricted to a few localities, but the export of raw silk has become so extensive that there is now almost no locality without some production of cocoons. So also with the tea industry, though much restricted. Tea was formerly produced in various localities, but had very small market. When, however, it found a foreign market its increase was very rapid; while the silk industry seems to have no limit for its expansion.

But when we remember that some 20 years ago 2.5 koku per tan was considered a tolerably good harvest, in the same districts less than three koku is not considered a good crop at present, and the harvest of more than four koku per tan is not rare. And it is not improbable that during recent 10 years it has increased, as some experts are inclined to think, some 50 per cent, which is much larger than is shown by the above statistics. Such a great progress is not to be wondered at when we consider that in recent years many new varieties have been introduced, and the quantity of manure used has been exceedingly large, the demand for which could not be satisfied without importing large quantities from abroad each year, amounting to more than some 36,000,000 yen.

Efforts have successfully been made to introduce many good breeds of livestock from Europe and America. Great improvement is noticed in the breeds of fowls, good breeds being largely introduced from abroad.

Farmers are becoming aware of the value and usefulness of science, and under the guidance of experts, directly or indirectly, they are making a gradual but constant improvement, which must of course result in increased production. Governments, central and local, are making constant effort to introduce improvements in agriculture and assist the farmer.

Agricultural education is encouraged. Agricultural instructions are given in the higher primary schools of villages and there are more than 7,000 continuation schools for agriculture, after the methods of the Fortbildings-schule of Germany. Agricultural schools are divided into two classes, higher and lower, almost every prefecture having one or more of the former, and various counties having the latter; special schools, especially for sericulture, horticulture and veterinary, not being wanting. There are at present three higher agricultural schools, two government establishments and one private school in Tokio established by the Agricultural Society of Japan. There are at present two university colleges, one in Tokio and another in Sapporo Each has a subsidiary course similar in grade to the higher agricultural schools. Agricultural courses are given in the common and higher normal schools. Local agricultural schools receive aid from the national funds. Agricultural courses of a few weeks are being

given in various places of every prefecture. Lectures for farmers are well attended and show excellent results.

There are now three higher sericultural schools established by the government; in Tokio, in Wuyeda in Nagauo prefecture, and in Kioto, in the two former of which instruction in silk reeling is also given. There are also many local institutes intended to give sericultural instruction. Agricultural experiment stations are many. One central station with its branch stations is established by government; also one sericultural experiment station with five branches: (1) Agriculture proper; (2) agricultural chemistry; (3) agronomy; (4) vegetable pathology; (5) entomology. Almost every prefecture has an agricultural or sericultural experiment station; aid being given from the national fund; many countries and villages have trial fields; also private institutes are not wanting.

Agricultural societies are divided into village societies, county societies and prefccture societies, there being one in every prefecture, in every county, in nearly all villages, according to the law relating to agricultural societies, and aid is given from the national fund and often from local governments, counties and villages, and we have now a central, the Imperial Society. There are also many general and special societies aside from those established according to the law relating to agricultural associations.

Prefectures and counties, and even villages, often employ agricultural, dendrological, sericultural and other experts to give free lectures and suggestions to farmers, and the central and local governments often hold industrial and agricultural exhibitions.

The government is now making a great effore to promote co-operative societies, including credit societies. These societies are all exceedingly important for the small farmers of Japan and they now number more than 11,500, Besides the law passed in 1900 relating to industrial societies, there exists a law relating to associations for important products, a law relating to livestock associations and a law relating to tea industry associations, all of which seek to promote these respective industries on the basis of co-operative principles. Great efforts are also being made to promote sericulture by giving special instruction, and a law has been passed to prevent silkworm diseases by securing to the farmer good and sound eggs.

Among the means to promote the improvement of livestock, large pasture has been established in the Imperial domains where good breeds of horses and cattle are raised. The government has also established a zoo technical experiment station with its three branch stations, three stud farms and 15 stallion depots. Laws have been passed as follows: For the inspection of stallions (1897); for the prevention of animal plagues (1896); and for the prevention of bovine tuberculosis (1901).

Preventive and destructive means against injurious insects are under the guidance of experts and are gradually coming into use among farmers. A law designed to enforce, when necessary, the means for prevention was passed in 1896.

To prevent fraud in artificial manures, a law was passed providing for the supervision of all

commercial fertilizers and each prefecture has a chemical laboratory to analyze the manure whenever requested. Besides credit-societies to provide small capital, the government has established the Industrial Bank of Japan, which is a central and special credit foncier and local agricultural and industrial banks of similar nature. These banks lend capital for agricultural and other industries principally on mortgage, allowing a low interest on a long term.

Land improvements are now going on very rapidly with the aid of the national and local funds, especially to promote drainage and irrigation in paddy fields and to overcome the small size and irregular form of the land parcels, which has been a great drawback in tilling operations. To this end the law relating to adjustment of farm lands was promulgated in 1899, which has now in addition the aim to promote the clearing of land and drying of water to get more arable field. Finally it may be stated that many agricultural products are feeling the pressure from without, on account of the keen competition, which may result in reduced prices. Some think that sooner or later Japanese agriculture will be conducted on a large scale, but those who know the climate and the contour of the country do not believe that Japanese farming could be organized on the Occidental large farming system.

TOKIYOSHI YOKOI, Professor of Agriculture in the Imperial University, Tokio.

In 1868,

19. THE JAPANESE ARMY. the first year of Meiji, the Imperial Japanese Government was formed under the Emperor Meiji. It had seven departments, one of which was that of the navy and army. While the name of the department has been changed several times, naval and military officers have always formed one branch of the administration. In the year 1868, this department of the. navy and army had come into the possession of the bureaus of the navy, army, construction, warships, ordnance, horse administration, military school and military administration. Next year it had the addition of the bureaus of account and courts-martial.

In 1871 military stations were established in Tokio, Tohoku, Osaka and Chinzei. At the same time took place the organization of the general staff bureau, naval school, shipbuilding office and other naval offices.

In 1872 the War Office was separated from the Navy Department and made an independent department. Two years later the number of military stations was increased from four to six and established at Tokio, Sendai, Nagoya, Osaka, Hiroshima and Kumamoto. At the time, however, the General Staff still formed a bureau of the War Office.

In 1875 military arsenals were established in Tokio and Osaka. In 1876 the Artillery Council was organized. In 1878 the General Staff Office was separated from the War Office, there being added the hydrographic and kindred offices, compilation, translation and survey, together with a library. Two years afterward a telegraph section was added to the General Staff Office.

In 1881 gendarmerie headquarters were established in Tokio. In the following year a military staff college was established under the

direction of the General Staff Office. In 1883 an Engineering Council was organized.

In January 1882, an Imperial rescript was given by His Majesty to his army and navy as their mottoes: Concerning Loyalty, Courtesy, Bravery, Faith, and Thrift.

Meanwhile, the Department of Military Training being established, the affairs on training has gone under the Inspector-General of Military Training; the military administration, under the War Minister; and all the rest, under the Chief of General Staff.

In 1886 a thorough reorganization of the War Office took place. It now consisted of the Minister's secretariates and bureaus of general affairs, cavalry, artillery, engineering account and medical affairs. Toward the end of that year a special fortification department was organized.

In 1888 the military stations were converted into Division Headquarters. At this time, the War Office established the woolen factory now existing at Senju. In 1890 the Imperial Bodyguard Headquarters were organized.

During 1895 there existed, as an outcome of the Chino-Japanese War, a special quarantine department. In June, offices having charge of the construction of telegraphs and lighthouses in Formosa were established and a military office was organized under the direction of the governor-general of Formosa.

In 1896 the number of army divisions in Japan was increased from 6 to 12, and Totokufu (offices of General Superintendence) were created for the eastern, central and western sections of Japan.

In 1898 the Gensui-fu (Council of Fieldmarshals and Fleet Admirals) and the Headquarters of Military Education were organized.

The War Office was reorganized in 1900, with new bureaus, viz., those of general affairs, personnel, military affairs, supply and justice. The Military Supply Depot was established in 1902.

In 1903 the Artillery and Engineering Councils were abolished. Branches of the Supply Depot were established at Ujina and Osaka. On 28 December of that year the Regulations of the Imperial Military Headquarters in Time of War and of the Military Council were amended.

On 13 Jan. 1904, the Totoku-fu were abolished. On 21 February, shortly after the outbreak of the war (1904), a bureau of information relating to prisoners of war was established in Tokio. On 24 April the Tokio Garrison Headquarters were newly organized. On 23 June, a special military quarantine office was established in Tokio, and quarantine stations were opened in Ni-no-shima and Dairi in November.

In 1905 a special military Central Exchequer was organized. Shortly after the opening of the war depots for the Russian prisoners of war were established at Matsuyama, Himeji, Fukuchiyama, Shizuoka, Hamadera, Navashino and other places, the total number of such depots being 29. A military quarantine station was newly established at Wada Point, Kobe, in September.

On 31 July 1906 the Regulations of the Military Department of the Government-General of Kwantung and of the Headquarters of the Military Forces in Korea were enacted. On 6 August the Regulations of the Homes for