his friends to the other. Upon this, the triumviri marched to Rome, and their steps were marked with murder and rapine throughout Italy. A. caused Cicero's head and right hand to be fixed up, as a spectacle, on that same rostrum from which his eloquence had so often been victorious. 300 senators and 2000 knights perished in this proscription. When the sum of money necessary for the war was procured, viz. 200,000,000 sesterces (about 6,300,000 dollars), and the triumviri had appointed magistrates for several years, B. C. 42, A. and Octavius departed for Macedonia, where the united forces of their enemies, Brutus and Cassius, formed a powerful army. At Philippi, A. commanded in an engagement against Cassius, who, when he perceived the event of the fatal battle, ordered one of his slaves to stab him. After the second batde, Brutus, also, destroyed himself. At the sight of his body, A. discovered the deepest emotion, covered it with his cloak, and gave orders that it should be interred with the highest honors. He then went to Greece, visited the public schools at Athens, and manifested his admiration of this city, splendid even in its ruins. Thence, he proceeded to Asia. In Cilicia, he ordered Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, to apologize for her insolent behavior to the triumviri. She appeared in person, and her charms fettered him forever. He followed her to Alexandria, where, in a constant course of dissipation, he bestowed not even a thought upon the affairs of the world, till he was aroused by report that hostilities had commenced in Italy, between his wife, Fulvia, and Octavius. A short war followed, which was decided in favor of Octavius, before the arrival of A. in Italy. The death of Fulvia facilitated a reconcilia, tion, which was sealed by the marriage of A. with Octavia, the sister of Octavius, The two armies made a new division of the Román dominions. A. obtained the East, Octavius the West. For mere form, Africa was consigned to the feeble Lepidus. With Sextus Pompey, who ruled the Mediterranean, a treaty was made. Upon this, A. went to Athens, made a campaign against the Parthians, which brought him but little honor, and then returned to Italy. By the interposition of Octavia, there appeared to be perfect harmony between the triumviri; but, after his return to Asia, A. gave himself up to a most abandoned course of life; lavished upon Cleopatra, without regard to the interests of the state, whole kingdoms and 25

VOL. I.

provinces; and exercised the most open injustice. After a second disgraceful campaign against the Parthians, he took Artavasdes, king of Armenia, prisoner, by treachery, accusing him of want of fidelity, and carried him, in triumph, to Alexandria. Octavius excited against A. the displeasure of the Romans, by a relation of his conduct. War between the two rivals was inevitable, and both began to prepare for it. Amid a round of pleasures, A. neglected his most important affairs, and filled the island of Samos, the rendezvous of his troops, with musicians and revellers, and, at the same time, divorced Octavia. These measures were followed by disapprobation as universal as the knowledge of Octavia's magnanimity and the hatred of Cleopatra's arrogance. At length, war was declared at Rome against the queen of Egypt, and A was deprived of his consulship and government. Each party assembled its forces, and A. lost, in the naval battle at Actium (q. v.), B. C. 31, the dominion of the world. He disgracefully followed Cleopatra in her flight. The army on land waited in vain for his arrival, and at last surrendered to the conqueror. Upon this, he went to Libya, where a considerable host, which he had left there, was his last hope. On his arrival, he perceived that it had embraced the party of Octavius, and his grief on the discovery was so great, that he was, with much difficulty, prevented from committing suicide. He returned to Egypt, and lived in obscurity, till Cleopatra succeeded in bringing him back to her palace and to his former mode of life. Her festivals. were interrupted by the arrival of Octavius, who refused all proposals of submission. At his appearance before Alexandria, A. seemed to recover all his former courage. He marched out at the head of his cavalry, and repulsed the hostile forces; but afterwards, deserted by the Egyptian fleet and his army, and suspecting that he was betrayed by Cleopatra, he again lost his courage. He retired to the palace of the queen, in order to take vengeance upon her; she fled, however, and deceived him by a false report of her death. Resolved to die with her, he fell upon his own sword, B. C. 30. Plutarch relates, that A. commanded his slave Eros to slay him; the slave, pretending to be ready to obey, requested him to turn away his face, and then, stabbing himself, fell dead at his feet. Moved by this exhibition of heroic affection, A. threw himself upon the

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same sword. On being told that Cleopatra was still alive, he caused himself to be carried into her presence, that he might die in her arms. (See Augustus and Cleopatra.)

ANTONY, Mark. (See Antonius, Marcus.) ANTRAIGUES (Emanuel Louis Henry Launey), comte d'. This man, who became distinguished as a statesman during the revolution, was born in Bivarais. His tutor, the famous abbé Maury, early cultivated his talents for a splendid and captivating, though unsubstantial eloquence. He made the first public display of his talents in the renowned Mémoire sur les États Généraux, leurs Droits et la Manière de les convoquer, A. D. 1788, in which his love of liberty, extending to the entire condemnation of all despotic governments, and the justification of resistance, was expressed with such force, that, in the exciteinent of the age, the work was honored with the greatest applause, and may justly be regarded as one of the first sparks that lighted the flame of the French revolution. But when he was appointed deputy to the states general, in 1789, he defended the privileges of hereditary nobility, was among those who most violently opposed the intended union of the three estates, and voted for a constitution fixing the rights of man, or rather of citizens, in which he declared the veto of the king an indispensable support of monarchy. In 1790, he left the assembly, renounced his oath of citizenship, with certain limitations, was accused of disturbing the public peace, openly defended himself, and then went to Petersburg and Vienna, engaged, continually, in diplomatic business. He was now the most zealous defender of monarchy and the Bourbons. Having been sent from Russia to Italy, in 1798, he was imprisoned, by order of Bonaparte, at Milan. His wife, the renowned opera singer St. Huberti, procured for him the means of escape. He returned to Vienna, and then to Russia, where, in 1803, he was made counsellor of state by Alexander I, and sent on public business to Dresden. He wrote here a remarkable work against Napoleon-Fragment du 18me Livre de Polybe, trouvé sur le Mont Athos. After his return to Russia, he found means to become acquainted with the secret articles of the peace of Tilsit, went to England, and communicated them to the ministry, by which means his influence became so great, that Canning did nothing in relation to France without his advice. He maintained his diplomatic

connexions, especially in France, and was every where esteemed one of the first politicians on the stage. In spite of his attachment to the Bourbons, and his numerous struggles in their behalf, he did not succeed in gaining, entirely, the confidence of Louis XVIII. In 1812, he was murdered, in a village near London, together with his wife, by his servant Lorenzo, an Italian, who, immediately after, shot himself also.

ANTWERP (Anvers, French; Amberes, Spanish; Antwerpen, German and Dutch); a large, well-built capital of a province of the same name in the Netherlands, which, in 1814, was formed out of the former marquisate of A. and the lordship of Mechlin, which, under the French gov ernment, had composed the department of the two Nethes. The province contains 1017 square miles, and 287,347 inhabitants. The city lies on the Scheldt: E. lon. 4° 24'; N. lat. 51° 13'. The largest vessels can ascend the river to the wharfs of A. on 8 chief canals and 3 basins, built by the French. The city contains 60,000 inhabitants, is strongly fortified, has a citadel, more than 10,000 houses, among which is the magnificent exchange, the oldest in Europe; also the council-house, the cathedral, in which Rubens (whose family was from A.) lies buried, the ample house of the Ostrelins (the former warehouse of the Hanseatic league), &c. A. is the see of a bishop, contains an academy of sciences, an academy of painting and sculpture, a medico-surgical school, and a marine arsenal. Its manufactures of laces, sugar, white lead, litmus, cotton cloth and fine thread are very important. Its sewing-silk, black silk stuff and printers' ink are known throughout Europe. Its commerce has greatly increased since the Scheldt was once more opened; and, in 1828, 955 vessels, amongst which were 73 from America, entered this port. Before the war of the Netherlands with Spain, A. was even more important than Amsterdam, which increased very much by the decline of A., in the 16th cen tury. At that time, the Scheldt was covered with vessels belonging to all nations, of which, at one time, 2500 lay in the harbor. An animated description of the commerce and activity of A., at that period, is given in Schiller's introduction to his Thirty Years' War. It then had 200,000 inhabitants, and the Hansa, the famous league of the Hanse towns, had numerous warehouses here. The first blow was given to its prosperity by the memorable siege under the prince of Par

ma, in 1585, and it was entirely ruined by the closing of its harbor after the peace of Westphalia. Joseph II attempt ed in vain to open the Scheldt. This was not done till after the conquest of the Austrian Netherlands by the French. The Scheldt was then declared free, and commerce would soon have revived, had not Napoleon made the place a military depot. In 1814, it was besieged by the English and Saxons under Graham, and defended by Carnot, who did not surrender it till the 5th of May, after the armistice with Monsieur had been concluded. Carnot's conduct was such, that he gained the admiration of all soldiers and military connoisseurs, and the love of the people of A., though they hated the French, and suffered much from the siege. Van Dyk, both the Teniers, Seyher, Crayer, Floris and Brili were born here.

ANUBIS; one of the most distinguished deities of the Egyptians. At first, he was worshipped under the form of a dog; afterwards, under that of a man with a dog's head; hence he was termed Cynocephalus. Tradition calls him a son of Osiris by Nephthys, whom he mistook for Isis. When Isis was convinced of this by the lotus wreath left with Nephthys by Osiris, she sought out the child, exposed by his mother for fear of Typhon, discovered him, with the help of a dog, educated him, and found in him a faithful guard and attendant. A. guards the gods as the dog guards men. So says Plutarch. According to Diodorus, Osiris was accompanied on his expeditions by A., and Macedon, another of his sons. A. carried a helmet covered with a dog's skin, and was therefore worshipped in the form of a dog.-According to the astronomical theology of the Egyptians, he was the 7th among the 8 gods of the first class, and designated the planet Mercury, as did also Piernies, the more common name of the planet. He was, consequently, lord of the ascendant for an hour of the day, and genius of wisdom. His original form was derived, probably, from the worship of the dog among the Egyptians, who regarded him as the god of hunting; then he became, according to Zoega, a guardian spirit in general, a protector of the gods. The Greeks recognised in him their Hermes, with whom, therefore, he became confounded. ANVILLE, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d', first geographer of the king, pensionnaire of the academy of inscriptions and fine arts, &c., was born at Paris, in 1697. A map, which chance put into his hands,

awakened his love for geography, at the age of 12. He began to sketch regions mentioned in the Roman historians, and directed all his studies to geography. He read the ancients only to ascertain the position of cities, and to fix the limits of the remote kingdoms, of which we find traces in history. Thus he early acquired an extensive knowledge of geography, became acquainted with the learned, and, at the age of 22, received the office of geographer to the king. He now began to examine and set in order the mass of his knowledge, and acquired a nice tact, resembling instinct, which was the result of ingenious and careful comparison. Almost every where, his accuracy was rewarded by the discovery of truth. The highest estimation is due to him as a critic, and most of his opinions and conjectures have been verified by later inquiries on the spot. He has published 211 maps and plans, and 78 treatises. His atlas of ancient Egypt is the most deserving. His Orbis Veteribus notus, and his Orbis Romanus, ought to be in the hands of all who read ancient history. So, also, his maps of Gaul, Italy and Greece. His maps of the same countries for the middle ages are of equal value. His maps of modern tiines are as good as could be formed of the materials in his possession. He was modest and unassuming, although too irritable when censured. The natural delicacy of his constitution did not hinder him from laboring 15 hours daily. Two years before his death, his mental powers sunk beneath the infirmities of age. He died in 1782. His valuable collection of maps was purchased by the government in 1779.

AONIAN MOUNT; Parnassus (q. v.); the residence of the Muses. The name Aonia was sometimes given to a part of Boeotia.— Aonides; one of the niany names given to the Muses.—Aõnes (doves) were a chain of mountains, of which Helicon was one.

AORTA; the great artery, which rises immediately out of the left ventricle of the heart. It is divided into two grand trunks, distinguished by the epithets ascending and descending. (See Artery.)

APANAGE; an allowance which the younger princes of a reigning house (in which the right of primogeniture prevails, as is now generally the case) receive from the revenues of the country, that they may be enabled to live in a manner becoming their rank. It consists mostly in money, with the use of a princely castle and hunting-grounds, attended, frequently, with the right of jurisdiction over

these domains. When it is once fixed, it passes to the descendants of the apanaged princes, sprung from a lawful marriage, of a suitable rank, and, in their default, commonly falls into the hands of the reigning sovereign. Sometimes it is added to the possessions of the surviving apanaged princes. A tract of land with the right of ruling it, set aside for an apanage, is called paragium.

APE. This designation, often indiscriminately applied to the members of the monkey tribe, was first properly restricted by Ray, the precursor of Linnæus, to those quadrumanous animals which, in structure, most closely approximate to the human configuration. In speaking of apes as distinguished from monkeys, we have reference to those genera of the great family quadrumana, which have neither tails nor cheek-pouches, attain nearly to human height, and present a facial angle, varying from 65° to 30°. The apes at present known are classed differently by different naturalists: Cuvier considers them all as species of one genus; Desmarest, whose arrangement, in this instance, we prefer, places them under the three genera, troglodytes, pithecus and pongo, the 2d of which he divides into two sub-genera, orangs proper, having no gluteal callosities, and gibbons, or long-armed apes, having caliosities. The species are, troglodytes niger, the chimpanzee or orang-otang, which is a native of Africa, especially of the coasts of Angola and Congo; pithecus satyrus, the red orang, found in the most castern parts of Southern Asia, particularly in Cochin China, Borneo and Malacca; pithecus lar, the great gibbon, a native of the Molucca islands, Coromandel, &c.; pithecus leuciscus, the wou-wou (so called on account of its cry), found in the same countries; pithecus syndactylus or siamang, and the pithecus agilis or active gibbon, both from Sumatra. As to the pongo, Cuvier has given excellent reasons for believing it to be nothing but the first-mentioned species in a state of maturity.-Like all the fourhanded animals, the apes are destined to live among the branches of trees, and are especially adapted, from their size and strength, to occupy large forests. All of them have the power of assuming a nearly erect position, though on the ground this is by no means convenient, as they stand upon the outer edges, being unable to apply the palms of the posterior hands fairly against the soil, and require a staff, or other support, to maintain this attitude,

except when they have been taught to stand erect by man.-They generally live in troops, and some of the species are said to construct a sort of hut of leaves, as a defence against the weather. They defend themselves with clubs, and employ these weapons with considerable effect, even against the human race. They are frugivorous in a state of nature, but, from the resemblance of their teeth to those of the human species, it is very evident that their diet may be almost as various as that of man. Some of them, the gib bons, are very remarkable, from the exceeding length of their superior extremities, the arm being so long that the hands hang near the ground when the animal is in the erect position. This singular conformation serves to adapt these creatures to their situations, in a manner which would scarcely be imagined, without having been witnessed. They spend their days chiefly upon the tops and branches of lofty trees, canes and bamboos, and, in passing from one to the other, are forced to make great leaps. The advantage of their vast length of limb is then rendered evident, as the gibbons would be unable to cling with their hinder hands to a long, flexile branch, swayed in various directions by the breeze, were it not that they can maintain their position by balancing themselves with their long arms. On the loftiest branches of the gigantic eastern forest trees, troops of these animals are seen sitting balanced in perfect security, and some of the species at sunrise and sunset scream forth discordant cries from such positions. If any circumstances occur to disturb these onsons, the apes disappear with amazing celerity into the depths of the forest, springing from tree to tree, swinging themselves to great distances by their long arins, and catching as readily at the next object with the posterior hands. The orangs of Borneo attain to the greatest size, growing to be five or six feet high; and travellers speak of apes of a still larger size. They are represented, with justice, as terrible animals, and are endowed with unexampled strength of limb, one adult ape being more than a match for several unarmed men. They cause much terror to the natives residing near their haunts, and commit great ravages among the plantations of fruit, &c.-The orang most frequently exhibited and closely observed in captivity is the chimpanzee, jocko or wild man of the woods, commonly called orang-otang (S. troglodytes, L.) This species is an inhabitant

of Africa, and especially of the coasts of Congo and Angola. In the proportions of its members, and form of the head, it most closely resembles the human kind. It is a very amusing, though, at the same time, an unproductive employment, to read the monstrous exaggerations and ridiculous fables, which have been written of this animal by various learned authors. As they are always obtained when very young, they are trained to the performance of actions, which their exhibitors afterwards are careful to say have been acquired by voluntary imitation. It is, however, only after long and painful discipline that this education is effected; and, this once terminated, they advance no farther. They never exhibit as much sagacity as is shown by a good dog, nor are they capable of an equal degree of improvement. As they advance in life, they become untractable and savage, and, if Cuvier's opinion be confirmed, that the pongo of Africa is this orang-otang in a state of maturity, they become, with age, the most terrible and indomitable of their whole race. Lascivious, filthy, gluttonous and ferocious, they offer to man a perfect picture of what he would be, were he, like them, destitute of the divine faculty of reason, which controls the brute impulses of his organization. In their native haunts, these animals manifest differences sufficiently striking, in their habits and modes of life, to render them interesting objects of contemplation. Some of the species are reinarkable for great activity; others are sluggish, indolent and inert. The females manifest an ardent attachment to their offspring, and make vigorous efforts to save them from injury. All show various degrees of that restless mobility, which indicates how much they are under the exclusive influence of sensation, without appearing to form conclusions from their repeated experience. An ape, in captivity, on seeing his image in a mirror, will look behind it to discover the animal reflected; and will as eagerly perform this action after the thousandth repetition as the first.-Our limits will not permit us to enter more particularly into this subject; but the curious reader will find in the works of F. Cuvier details sufficiently ample to satisfy the most inquisitive spirit.

A-PEAK (a pique, Fr.); perpendicular to the anchor. A ship is said to be in this situation, when the cable is drawn so tight into the bow as to bring her directly over the anchor, so that the cable bears right down from the ship's stem.

APELLES, the most famous of the ancient portrait-painters, was the son of Pythias; probably born at Colophon. At Ephesus, he received the rights of citizenship, and therefore is called, sometimes, the Ephesian. Ephorus of Ephesus was his first teacher, but, attracted by the renown of the Sicyonian school, which distinguished itself by exact study, he became the disciple of Pamphilus, in Sicyon, though already himself an artist of reputation. Here he executed, with some other pupils of the same master, different paintings, which, for a long time, enjoyed great fame. In the time of Philip, A. went to Macedonia, and there, probably, the friendship and familiar intercourse between him and the king were established, which have given origin to so many anecdotes. But many of these may relate to a meeting with Alexander in Ephesus, where A. had gone, after a short stay at Rhodes, Cos and Alexandria. While staying at Rhodes, being in the study of Protogenes, during the absence of the latter, he drew a sketch, in which Protogenes, on his return, recognised the masterly stroke of A., and undertook to excel him. A. returned, and drew a third sketch, superior to both, so that the Rhodian painter declared himself conquered. The table containing the figures was afterwards brought to Rome, and ornamented the palace of the Caesars, till destroyed in a conflagration. The most celebrated painting of this artist-Alexander holding the lightning, from which the chief light of the picture proceeds-stood in the temple of Ephesus. By a happy application of perspective and chiaro-oscuro, the hand with the lightning seemed to project from the picture.-The talent and renown of A. were at their height in the 112th Olympiad. Yet, after the death of Alexander, he several times painted king Antiochus. This must have happened in the 118th Olympiad. Death seems to have surprised the artist in Cos, where an unfinished Venus was shown as his work, which nobody dared to complete. But the story that A., at the court of Ptolemy, at Alexandria, was accused, by the painter Antiphilus, of being engaged in a conspiracy, and that, his innocence being proved, he took revenge on the king and his rival, by a picture of Calumny, must refer to another artist of the same name. Tölken, professor at the university of Berlin, in his lecture, Apelles and Antiphilus, in vol. iii. of Amalthea, has proved that this Apelles lived between the