to him during the "hundred days." He was then member of the deputation from the chamber of deputies to the army. The decree of the king of the 24th July banished him to the distance of twenty leagues from Paris. In consequence of the decree of Jan. 17, 1816, he found himself compelled to fly, and now resided sometimes in Belgium, sometimes in Holland. His four years' banishment, and his exclusion from the national institute, arose, perhaps, from the erroneous supposition, that he had been one of the editors and contributors to the journal Le Nain jaune. His tragedy Germanicus (translated into German, also twice into Italian) was performed, in 1817, in the Théatre Français, at Paris, to a very full house, and occasioned great disturbance in the theatre, as the opposite political parties made it the occasion for the clamorous expression of their opinions. The design of effecting the recall of the author from banishment, by the representation of this piece, was disappointed, and it was not repeated. A collection of his works appeared, in 1818, at Brussels, in 6 vols., and a new collection at Paris, 1824. In Nov. 1819, he obtained permission to return to France; his pension was also renewed. He has not yet been restored to his seat in the institute. Among his works are several speeches and treatises, of the year 1804, on the system of public instruction. He has also written fables (1812; new edition, 1815), and a comedy (La Rançon de Duguesclin, 1813). His latest tragedies are, Les Guelfes et les Gibelins, Lycurgue, and Guillaume I, 1826, in which the character of Philip II is very well drawn. He has also taken part in several periodicals, especially in the. Veillées des Muses, 1797; in the Mercure, 1815; and in the Liberal, at Brussels, from 1816 to 1820, in which most of the articles on morality, literature and philosophy were written by him. He was one of the editors of the Miroir des Spectacles, des Lettres, des Maurs et des Arts. As such, he was obliged to defend himself, in 1821, before the police correctionnelle, at Paris, because some of the articles were considered to have a political bearing, but was entirely acquitted, as were also the other editors. With Jouy, Jay and Norvins, he has undertaken, on an excellent plan, the Biographie nouvelle des Contemporains. He has also written Vie Politique et Militaire de Napoléon (with plates). Napoleon remembered him in his will, and bequeathed him a legacy of 100,000 francs. Of his sons, the eldest, Lucien Émile, former

prefect of the department of Ardèche, has also gained celebrity as a tragic poet, particularly by his Regulus, 1819. An earlier production, Pertinax, published under his name, was written by his father.

ARND, John; a Lutheran minister, distinguished for piety. He is the author of a work, which has been translated into almost every language of Europe, and has been extensively read in Germany for 200 years. Its title is, True Christi anity (Wahres Christenthum). A. was born, in 1555, at Ballenstedt, in Anhalt, and died, in 1621, at Celle, after he had been a minister in different places, and suffered from the Calvinists, and even the Lutherans. A few hours before his death, he preached from the text, Psalm cxxvi., "They who sow in tears shall reap in joy," and, on arriving at his house, spoke of his discourse as a funeral sermon. His work above mentioned has been reprinted since his death, in 1777, by Feddersen, and in 1816, by Sintenis.

ARNDT, Ernst Moritz; a German author, who contributed towards the libera tion of Germany from the dominion of the French, by his bold and patriotic writings. He was born in Pomerania, and, in 1806, was professor of philosophy at Greifswald. At first, he was an admirer of Napoleon, though moderate in his praises, but became his most decided enemy, when he discovered his views of conquest. A. was obliged to fly to Sweden, from whence he returned to Germany, when it threw off the French yoke. At this time, he wrote a number of pamphlets and poems, all intended to inflame the hatred of his countrymen against the French. These writings are distinguished by patriotic, but often overstrained sentiments, and, at the same time, by confused notions of politics, liberty, German nationality, and the old German empire. The liberality of his sentiments afterwards involved him in the famous demagogic inquisitions in Prussia, when he was professor of the university of Bonn. How unwisely the Prussian government conducted, in its political prosecutions, is shown by its treatment of A. From 3 man of such vague notions on politics, no danger was to be feared. A. has written much on history. He is a man of uncommon talents, but no politician.

ARNE, Thomas Augustin, whom the English consider as one of their first composers. He was born at London, in 1704, the son of a respectable upholsterer, and received the first part of his education at Eton. He was intended for the

study of the law, but a strong inclination led him to devote himself to music, and he secretly carried an old spinet into the garret of his father's house, in order to pursue his favorite occupation. For a long time, he was obliged to keep it secret, but his father was finally induced to yield to his wishes, after he had made great progress in the art. Discovering that his sister had a fine voice and a great fondness for music, he prevailed on her to choose the profession of a singer. He composed a part for her in his first opera, Rosamond, after the text of Addison, which was performed, in 1733, at Lincoln's-Inn fields, and was received with great applause. Then followed Fielding's comic opera, Tom Thumb, or the Tragedy of Tragedies. His style in the Comus, 1738, is still more original and cultivated. The public was delighted with his lively, cheerful and natural melodies, and with the truth and simplicity of his expression. In 1740, he married Cecilia Young, an excellent singer, educated in the Italian school. They went, in 1742, to Ireland, where they were well received. After two years, he was engaged as a composer, and his wife as a singer, at the Drury lane theatre, in London. He composed several songs in 1745, for the Vauxhall concerts. After having composed two oratorios, and several operas, one of which was called Eliza, and having received the title of doctor of music, at Oxford, he attempted a composition in the Italian style (Metastasio's Artaserse), which was very popular. His talents, however, were better adapted to the simple, lovely and soft, than to the grave and elevated. He composed, also, several of the songs in Shakspeare's dramas, and various pieces of instrumental music. He died in 1778. His sister was afterwards a distinguished singer under the name of Mrs. Cibber: his brother, also, went on the stage.

ARNO (anciently Arnus); one of the largest and finest rivers of Italy, which divides Tuscany into two parts, and washes Florence and Pisa. The A. rises in the Apennines, on the east of Florence, near a village called S. Maria della Grazia, on the borders of Romagna, 15 miles W. of the sources of the Tiber; it then turns southward towards Arezzo, where it is increased by the lakes of the Chiana; after which it runs westward, dividing Florence into two parts, and, at length, washing Pisa, falls, 4 miles below it, into the Tuscan sea. This river has been sung by many poets, on account of the

beautiful banks between which it meanders, and the cities with which they are adorned. From any hill in the neighborhood of Florence, or at the confluence of the Chiana, the view into the valley of the A. is charming. In ancient times, the Etruscans erected here extensive works of hydraulic architecture, long before any other Italian nation had arrived at such a degree of civilization. Niebuhr, in his Roman History, division Tuscans and Etruscans, says as follows:-"The greatest part of Tuscany is mountainous. The rich valley, through which the Arno flows, was, in ancient times, covered by a lake and marshes. From Segna to Fiesole, and toward Prato, was one lake: the Gonfalina closed up the valley: a passage was made through this rock, to open a way for the river towards Pisa. The water covered this space at the time of the erection of the walls of Fiesole, as is shown by many openings which were designed for draining it off. It covered the site of modern Florence, whose origin, it is, therefore, absurd to refer to the Etruscan times. A section was also cut at La'ncisa (the cut), to drain the rich fields of the upper valley of the Arno; or it may be that the rivers, which now form this part of the Arno, formerly fell into the Clanis, and the object was, to diminish the water of the Tiber. The marshes through which Hannibal marched are, at present, dry on the right bank of the Lower Arno." In the time of Napoleon, the A. gave its name to an extensive and populous department in the grand empire; Florence being the capital. The population amounted to about 600,000.

ARNOBIUS the Elder, called, also, the African, was, about A. D. 300, teacher of rhetoric, at Sicca Veneria, in Numidia, and, in 303, became a Christian. While yet a catechumen, he wrote 7 books of Disputationes adversus Gentes, in which he refuted the objections of the heathens against Christianity with spirit and learning. This work betrays a defective knowledge of Christianity, but is rich in materials for the understanding of Greek and Roman mythology. Hence it is one of the writings of the Latin fathers, which, like the works of his disciple Lactantius, are particularly valued by philologists. Orelli has published the last and best edition (Leipsic, 1816). From the younger A., a Gallic divine, in the last half of the 5th century, we have only an insignificant commentary on the Psalms, which betrays the principles of the SemiPelagians.

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ARNOLD of Brescia, one of the disciples of Abelard, returned, full of new ideas on religion and the church, in 1136, to his native city. His bold and lofty spirit, his knowledge of Christian antiquities, and his vehement eloquence in his public harangues, gave authority to his reproaches against the abuses of the church. Thus he instigated the people against the clergy; and, in France, where he was obliged to flee in 1139, he also found numerous adherents; for the immorality and arrogance of the clergy had every where excited discontent. The fierce flame which he had kindled could not be extinguished by the excommunication pronounced against him and his adherents (Arnoldists) by Innocent II. A. preached his doctrine in safety at Zurich, in Switzerland, until 1144, when he appeared at Rome, and, by the powers of his eloquence, occasioned a violent excitement among the people against the clergy. The furious multitude, whom he himself could no longer restrain, revered him as their father, and even the senate protected him, till Adrian IV, in 1155, laid an interdict upon the city. This disgrace, never before experienced, subdued the Romans. They sued for mercy, and A. was obliged to fly. He was taken in Campania, and burnt at Rome, as a heretic and a rebel; his ashes were thrown into the Tiber, and his party was suppressed. But the spirit of his doctrine descended upon the sects which arose during the same and the following centuries.

ARNOLD, Benedict. (Our readers will excuse the length of the present and some other articles of American biography, on account of the reasons given in the preface.) This man, one of the most distinguished generals in the American army during the earlier part of the contest of the colonies with Great Britain, and subsequently infamous as a traitor to his country, was born in Connecticut, of obscure parentage, and received an education suitable to an humble condition. The occupations of his youth were not fitted to prepare him for the functions which he was called upon to exercise in the sequel. At first a dealer in horses, Je sustained losses in his trade. Eager for renown, greedy of money, the troubles of his country inspired him with the hope of acquiring fame and fortune by the profession of arms: accordingly, on the breaking out of the revolutionary war, he embraced the cause of his countrymen with enthusiasm, and took the command of a

company of volunteers at New Haven. He soon won a high military reputation. Washington, encouraged by secret advices that the Canadians were inclined to make part of the Union, projected the surprise of Quebec. This hazardous undertaking required leaders at once active, vigilant, bold, and inflexibly patient. He committed it to Montgomery and colonel Arnold, as the most capable. He exhorted them, with extreme earnestness, to treat the Canadians as friends, as fellow-citizens, and to punish severely the least irreg ularities of the soldiery. Arnold began his march in the month of September. He conducted his small force through deserts which man had never before penetrated. The river of Kennebeck had overflowed its banks; he crossed it by swimming, or on rafts. Unknown streams presented a new obstacle: he diverted their course. The snow fell in abundance; a few hours of sun during the day were insufficient to thaw the ice formed in the long and severe nights of the northern autumn; but nothing could arrest his progress. He was always in the van with the pioneers, who cut a passage through this wild country, and, at the end of each march, had arrived before the enemy knew of his approach. He thus put in practice a maxim which he was fond of repeating: "In war, expedition is equivalent to strength."-The last division, conducted by a man less resolute and persevering, returned; while he, at the head of the two first, sustained the courage of the soldiers, who were exhausted by fatigue, hunger and every species of suffering. After two months of toil, all impediments were overcome, and he encamped before the fortress, but with a band so much enfeebled, that he was obliged to await the arrival of Montgomery, who approached by another route. Montgomery died gloriously in an assault, Dec. 31, 1775. Arnold was severely wounded in the leg, and forced to convert the siege into a blockade. He was not, however, to be daunted by any reverse. From the bed to which his wound confined him, he infused into the little army, the command of which had now devolved upon him, his own spirit of determination and contidence. The enterprise failed: the courage and intelligence, which he exhibited throughout, placed him, nevertheless, in the first class of American officers. He served with better fortune, and still greater distinction, in the subsequent campaigus, and bore a considerable part in that in which Burgoyne and his army

were made prisoners. He fought with his usual intrepidity in the engagement which immediately preceded the capitulation. The first to throw himself into the intrenchments of the enemy, he was animating his men by his example, when a ball shattered the leg already wounded at the siege of Quebec. As he was borne from the ranks to his tent, he still issued orders for the continuance of the assault. The boldness of Arnold was so great, that he was accused of a disposition to entangle himself rashly in perilous situations; but it could not be denied, that his rapid discernment supplied him, in the midst of danger, with the surest expedients, and that success always justified his daring. The admiration of his fellow-citizens kept pace with his services. His love of glory was accompanied with an equally strong love of pleasure and dissipation, and he was very unscrupulous about the mode of obtaining the means of gratifying it. His ill-gotten wealth he squandered in frivolous expenses, or mere ostentation. Montreal, the second city of Canada, was, under his command, a scene of injustice and rapacity, and the Canadians soon abandoned the design of joining the confederation. The attempt on Canada was abandoned, and, the wounds of Arnold being not yet healed, he could be invested only with some stationary command. Washington, though he detested his vices, did not wish to leave his talents idle. The English having evacuated Philadelphia, he directed Arnold to take possession of that city with some troops of the Pennsylvania line,-a delicate charge for a man so prone to extend his powers, and define them according to his interests. It was not long before he displayed in this city a magnificence as foreign to the habits of the country, as it was unseasonable in the midst of the calamities of war. He even lodged in his house the French envoy and all his suite on their arrival. From this time, too, he began to profess an extraordinary attachment to the French, and great zeal for an alliance with them. To relieve himself from the difficulties into which his extravagance had plunged him, he resorted to the same oppression and extortion which had rendered his authority odious to the Canadians. Under pretence of the wants of the army, he forbade the shopkeepers to sell or buy; he then put their goods at the disposal of his agents, and caused them afterwards to be resold with a profit. He prostituted his authority to enrich his accomplices, and squabbled with them about the division

of the prey. The citizens applied for redress to the courts of justice. But, with his military authority as his shield, he set at defiance both justice and the laws. At length, however, a representation of the grievances which the state was suffering, was made to congress by the president of the executive council of Pennsylvania, a man of firm and upright character, who had endeavored in vain to repress the overweening and predatory spirit of Arnold, and a committee was appointed to inquire into the subject. Arnold replied to the charges with arrogance. Some members of congress were of opinion that he should be suspended from his military functions until the investigation of his public conduct was brought to an issue; but the accusation had become an affair of party, and he had influence enough to cause this proposition to be set aside. Congress at length resolved to lay the complaints against him before the commander-inchief.-As soon as Arnold saw that the resolutions of congress would be of this tenor, he resigned the command which he held in Philadelphia. He was tried before a court martial, and condemned, January 20, 1779, to be reprimanded by the commander-in-chief. Congress ratified the sentence, and Washington, having caused the culprit to appear before him, performed the task with the considerate delicacy which he thought due to so distinguished an officer. Arnold, however, quitted the army, and, thenceforth, nourished an implacable hatred towards the cause which he had so brilliantly defended.-The embarrassment of his affairs was at this time such, that private aid would not suffice to extricate him. He had, some time before, formed a partnership with some owners of privateers, who paid his share of the expenses of equipment, and expected to be compensated, for their advances, by his countenance and protection; but the chances were adverse, and, instead of profits to be divided, there were losses to be borne. Arnold, now without credit or authority, was no longer regarded by the owners as any thing more than an ordinary partner. They exacted his proportion of the loss, and their knowledge of his difficulties only served to render them more urgent in their suit. In this extremity, he tried a last resource.-Congress, at the commencement of the revolution, committed an error which proved of great detriment to the finances. It intrusted some officers with agencies which had no immediate connexion with the business of command or military service.

Arnold, the least proper for such trusts, was charged with considerable ones, and had large claims for monies and stores furnished in the expedition to Canada, The commissioners, to whom they were referred for settlement, reduced them very considerably. He appealed from their decision to congress, who pronounced that the commissioners had shown more lenity than rigor in the liquidation of his accounts.-Disappointed in all his expectations, Arnold at last determined to betray his country, and to make his treason in a high degree useful to England, that it inight procure him a full pardon for his share in the revolt of the colonies. He wished to be regarded as a subject returned to his allegiance, and worthy of the honorable rewards due to faithful and virtuous citizens. As a first step, the British commanders were to be made acquainted with his discontent, but in so guarded a manner as to leave a retreat open, in case the offers, which might be made to him, should not prove satisfactory. Particular circumstances facilitated the communications between them.-As soon as the English commander was apprized of the disposition of Arnold, he despatched emissaries charged with such offers as were most likely to determine a man whose hesitation was only about the means and conditions. Some of Arnold's proceedings, about this period, warrant the supposition, that he at first meant to tamper with his brother officers, but relinquished this design on more mature reflection. He took good care that nothing of his real intentions should be divined by the subaltern English agents; but there was, at New York, a man whom he thought he could trust without risk. This was Charles Beverley Robinson, an American by birth, and a colonel in the British army, whose property all lay within the U. States. His mansion, situated on the Hudson, was included in the American lines, and three miles lower than the forts upon the opposite bank. The commanding officers of West point, having found it deserted, had made it their quarters. Arnold wrote to this officer, that the ingratitude of his country, and other considerations to be afterwards disclosed, had produced a change in his political sentiments; that he aspired to merit, thenceforward, the favor of the king; that he could render signal services; and wished to enter into a correspondence on the subject with sir Henry Clinton. This overture was well received, and, a direct communication with the English general being established,

it was agreed that Arnold should dissemble, with the utmost care, his discontem ; that he should make every effort to obtain a command from general Washington; that, as soon as he succeeded, he should consult with sir Henry Clinton as to his future movements, and be guided by the instructions which would be given to him.

From this time, he entirely altered his manner and language. He affected to have forgotten the affront of the repri inand, and pretended to feel a more lively attachment than ever to the cause of independence.-The country through which the Hudson flows was the principal theatre of the war. A station in this quarter would, he thought, best answer his purpose. He was well acquainted with the localities. He examined, with minute attention, in what spot, by what operations, he could most beneficially second the enterprises of the British, and which was the most important position to betray into their hands. New York was, at this time, in the hands of the British, who had as sembled there the greatest part of ther troops. The fortress of West point, a military station of very great importance, distant 20 leagues from this city. Arnold aimed at the chief command of this pos', with a view of betraying it into the hands of the British, with the garrisons, and the arms and immense stores which were deposited there; for fort Clinton contained, besides the ammunition necessary for its own defence, the stock of powder of the whole army.-The command of the fort had been intrusted to general Howe, an officer of tried courage, but of limited capacity, who could be employed elsewhere without inconvenience to the service. The wounds of Arnold did not as yet allow him to mount on horseback; they did not dis qualify him, however, for conducting the defence of a citadel. He had early secured the patronage of some of the leading men of the state of New York, and Washington was prevailed upon to consign West point to him. Being a traitor to his own country, he was apprehensive lest those to whom he was about to sell himself might prove treacherous to him. He felt anxious to receive the price of his ignominious bargain at the moment of its ratification; but he could extort nothing more than a promise of 30,000 pounds sterling, and the assurance that he should be maintained in the British army, in the rank of brigadier-general, which he already held. About a month previous (July 10, 1780), the first division of the French army arrived at Newport, in the state of Rhode