land in 1679. There still exists one for debtors in Holyrood.-The Dictionary of Religion.

LIFE AND GROWTH OF A TREE.

For convenience sake we group the bodies that we see around us into the mineral, the vegetable, the animal kingdoms, and into sub-divisions of these. No such divisions actually occur in the great world of things. The divisions are pure but convenient conventions." In a work before us on Botany we find these words as indicating the latest position taken by scientists, in respect of the phenomena termed Physical Life. From this it follows that the great physical life principle is the same throughout all the series of Nature, the difference being one only of degree- Consequently, if we can understand somewhat of the life and growth of a tree, we shall get a glimpse into the workings of physical life through all Nature. Man, animal and vegetable life, is made up entirely of cells. It is, therefore, of the first importance, that we should know something of what a cell is, and how from an infinitely little thing of 1-40th to 1-12th of an inch in length, and 1-3000th of an inch in diameter, it grows into the large Forest Tree.

CELL STRUCTURE.

If we examine a little brewer's little brewer's yeast under a microscope, we see that it is made up of a large number of minute, rounded particles; These particles are separated cells. Each of these cells is composed of an outer or cell wall and the cell contents. The young cell at first has no cell wall, but is composed simply of the cell contents, which goes under the name of Protoplasm. This substance the beginning of moving life-is soft and jelly-like in consistency, and never

truly fluid. At times it is homoge neous and transparent, and mor often granular. It forms the vita portion of the cell, and possesses con the cell increases in age the cell wal siderable power of movement. A is formed. The protoplasm withi the cell circulates in various direc tions through the cell, and carries in its movement substances imbedded in it. It is a spectacle to strike u with a wonderful awe and admiration as through the microscope hour afte hour we watch this stream of life flowing within the minute cell with no cessation or sign of weaking.

THE CELL WALL.

The cell wall is composed of mi nute solid particles or molecules, be tween each of which the waters per colates, so that each molecule is sur rounded by a layer of liquid. Th food that the protoplasm requires fo growth reaches the cell in a liqui form, and is also made up of minut particles. Some of these food par ticles get absorbed in the protoplasm while some find their way betwee the particles that make up the cel wall. The cell in consequence in creases in size. This process of in crease is called growth by intus-sus ception, and is characteristic of th growth of organic nature, and i totally different from the manner i which minerals increase their size. I

a crystal, say of alum, be suspende in a vessel containing a strong solu tion of the same substance, it en larges by a process of accretion-tha is a series of fresh layers form upo

its exterior.

CELL DIVISION THE CAUSE OF GROWTH

Within the Protoplasm, and mor or less distinctly separated from th general mass, is the centre, known a the Nucleus. When cell division i about to take place, two nuclei ar formed either by the 'division of the

original one, or by its disappearance, and the formation of the fresh ones. The whole mass of the protoplasm now collects around these nuclei, and a cell wall is formed between the masses so produced, growing inwards from the circumference to the centre, thus dividing the mother-cell into two daughter-cells, each of which may grow to the size of the mother-cell. The size of the adult cell varies from 1-40th to 1-12th of an inch in length, and from 1-1500th to 1-13000th of an inch in diameter. We have no absolute knowledge why the cell divides when it attains to certain growth. It has been very reasonably suggested 1 that the force of cohesion loses its power after the cell has reached a certain size, and so a part breaks away. In the flow of the protoplasm round the nucleus or centre, we find the same power which compels this earth and all the huge masses of heaven to revolve round their different centres. The immensely vast and the infinitely small obey the same calm fixed law.

THE ROOT IN ITS SEARCH FOR FOOD.

We have tried to show simply and hortly, that the living protoplasm, which constitutes the vitality of the cell, grows by reason of the food it eats, till it reaches a certain size, when it divides into two cells, both of which go through the same process, and this division endlessly repeated is the cause of growth. We will now consider how the food reaches the cell. The roots of a tree enter the ground, and receive part of its nourishment from that source. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, are sometimes called the Eve organic elements of tree life, as they are required for the building up the protoplasm and cell wall. But efore any food can be taken up by the roots, it must be in a state of soluton, and this is done by the water in

15

This

the soil dissolving all the various food materials. and bring them into a fit state to be absorbed by the root. The outside surface of the root is entire and not perforated by holes, hence the liquid food has to be absorbed into the cells of the root itself. is done by the process of Endosmose and Exosmose. By this law, some of the water in the soil passes into the cell, and some of the sap in the cell passes into the soil. But as the water in the soil is less dense than the sap, it flows more rapidly into the roots, than the sap from the roots into the soil. The food stuff which enters the root by the law of Endosmose, ascends from cell to cell by capillary attraction, the cells themselves acting as capillary hairs. There are other forces which favor the ascent of sap, which we will mention later.

EXCRETION OF FLANTS

solves sone of the mineral substances The sap which enters the soil dis❤ in the ground, which the tree requires

for food, and could not be dissolved by water alone, and therefore could not enter the root.

As a proof of this Acid Excretion, place some seeds of mustard and cress on a piece of smooth marble and cover them with sand to onefourth of an inch in depth; place them in a position suitable for growth. When the young plants have grown for a short time, we shall find on clearing them away from the marble that the rootlets have eaten into the slab, dissolving the marble by the acid from the little rootlets which have formed minute grooves. explains why the roots of large trees. are sunk into solid rock. They have sprung up from that position from seeds, and as the roots have grown, the acid sap has gradually eaten a passage for them until they have attained their present firm position.

This

H. B. M. BUCHANAN, B. A.

oped into its present form and condition? How did the various species of animals originate? These form some of the leading questions of the day, and not least among them is the question, What is the origin of language? Many efforts have been made to answer the inquiry without any satisfactory solution. This has been so, chiefly because the origin of language like the origin of other objects, carries us beyond the limits of observation and experience. As the creation of the earth is too remote in the primitive eras of time for us to form, apart from revelation, a clear and satisfactory idea ofthe event; so the origin of language carries us back to the primitive era of our race when only two human beings were witnesses of the process. Their testimony would have been valuable, and would have ended many disputes. But this knowledge, like the lost arts, has disappeared. Now, however, in the absence of knowledge based on personal observation, and on the testimony of those who were privileged to observe, we can only form our judgment concerning the origin of language from the elements which enter into its present composition and from the operation of those various influences which tend to change and develop, to eunoble or degrade language in modern times. In investigations of this kind this is the best and safest way. This also is the method of investigation pursued in other sciences. This, for instance, is the way by which we get our knowledge of geology. We form our judgement of the original history of the earth and its development to its present form, from the material substances, the various elements composing it, and also from the powerful forces operating within it, such as gravitation, heat, light, and chemical and electrical forces. By observing the effects of these forces

17

on the various substances of the earth at present, causing commotions in the air and in the sea, producing earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and changes into its physical geography, we can form some idea of the processes which have been carried on in the earth during the various periods of creation, and of the way in which it has been brought to its present form. In a similar manner in forming our judgment concerning the origin of language, we should take into account its constituent elements, such as the various organs and sounds of speech, the forms of thought and feeling which seek expression, and the various influences which affect its development. The last includes those influences which tend to produce vocal changes for for the sake of brevity or euphony, those also which give a new impulse to mental activity and the spiritual life of a nation as well as those influences which cause the formation of new words and dialects and the disappearance of others. By observing these changes which are going on in the languages of the present day, and how new dialects are formed and developed, we can also form a reasonably correct idea of the formation of language in the beginning.

Some have regarded language as having been given by God in a complete form to man at his creationthat he received it from his Maker ready for use. There is no authority for such a supposition, and we know that such is not the usual way in which God bestows his blessings. Other theories are that language grew from the natural sounds expressing the sudden emotions of joy and sorrow, surprise, fear, &c.; or that it sprung from imitating the sounds of animate and inanimate nature, such as the cuckoo, whipporwill, katy-did, regen-rych, &c. There are, no doubt,.

many words of this kind in all languages, and these natural and spontaneous sounds may have been the primitive elements from which language was wrought; they may even have been the earliest suggestions to to man himself of the divinely endowed capacity within him, but no doubt, the chief impelling and formative power in its structure and elaboration has ever been the human mind itself, probably inspired from a higher source. Language may thus be regarded as the product of man's own mental powers. God had from the beginning endowed him with an innate capacity of forming and using language. He was endowed with a strong mental desire and a suitable bodily mechanism, for expressing his thoughts and feelings to others. And his condition in life and social relations with his fellow-beings, awakened and called forth into activity these innate energies which belonged to him. Man has been naturally endowed with the power of reasoning, but in the child it lies dormant and inactive, until in later years it is called forth into exercise, and thus developed and strengthened by practice. So the capacity for language is natural or innate in man and by its exercise languages are formed, developed and perfected. As new wants and conditions in life beset us, and as new ideas and emotions spring up in our souls, they at the same time require and stimulate the mind to seek new mediums for expressing them to others. In this way, it may be said that language is the gift of God, and at the same time the product of the human mind. Language was not given at first as an instrument already made for use, but rather as a living germ which grew and expanded in the multiplicity of its words and modes of expression as the relations and pursuits of life were

came

increased.

multiplied. Language gradually be more perfect as men's knowlThe new conditions of city life in the time of Cain, the new inventions and discoveries of Jabal and Tubal Cain called for new words and names, and thus enlarged the scope of their language as well as their fund of knowledge and experience. As each new idea the child receives adds also to his vocabulary, and the enlargement of his mind and experience enlarges also the scope and range of his language; just so with the original tongue-its vocabulary continually increased and its form became more fully developed as the human family enlarged their experience and increased their knowledge through the ages.

But in our time instead of there being only one spoken language as in the garden of Eden, many hundreds of different languages and dialects have sprung up among the human race. The question now is, How did these come into being? The best way to answer this inquiry, perhaps, is to ascertain how dialects are formed at the present time. How, for instance, have the various dialects of England and Wales been formed? Fifty years ago an American might go over to Lancashire, Yorkshire, or Cornwall in England, and a Welshman might go to various parts of Wales. without understanding fully their daily speech. Why should this be so? The principal cause, no doubt, was the want of intercourse and mutual acquaintance on the part of people from various parts of the country. They associated with each other so little that they became estranged from each other. They varied the pronunciation of the same words, and the words themselves changed their forms and meanings amidst the varying influences of different localities; so that sometimes