Traces have been found of the existence at some earlier period of a range of primary rocks, extending from Orange to Cobar and Wilcannia, and forming the watershed between the Lachlan and part of the basin of the Darling. The range no longer exists as a landmark, for owing to denudation it has almost entirely disappeared.

The main range already described, traversing the country from north to south, gives rise to numerous rivers flowing into the South Pacific. In the extreme north of the state, the Tweed and Brunswick Rivers flow through a rich country of semi-tropical aspect. Their courses are short, and bar-entrances render them navigable only for small craft.

A few miles south of the Brunswick, the Richmond descends from the heights of the Macpherson Range, on the slope of Mount Lindsay, one of the highest peaks of the northern table-land. The river has three branches, and is navigable on the main arm as far as Casino, 62 miles, and on Wilson's Creek to Lismore, 60 miles from the sea. The Richmond drains an area of about 2,400 square miles of country, rugged in its upper basin and heavily timbered, and in its lower course flowing through rich alluvial land, where the produce of semi-tropical climes grows luxuriantly.

Immediately south of the last-named stream is the Clarence-the largest river on the eastern watershed. It takes its rise in a spur of the Main Dividing Range, and runs in a south-easterly direction for 240 miles, carrying a considerable body of water through one of the richest districts of the state, and emptying itself into the Pacific at Shoal Bay. The upper part of its basin is very rugged, so much so that its principal tributaries, the Mitchell, Nymboi, Timbarra, and Orara Rivers, rising in the New England table-land, between Armidale and Tenterfield, all flow in an opposite direction to the course of the main stream, generally trending to the north-east, and even, in the case of the Orara and the Nymboi, to the north-west. The Lower Clarence is a magnificent stream, averaging half-a-mile in width, from its mouth upwards, for nearly 50 miles, and it is navigable for 67 miles, as far as Copmanhurst. Ocean-going steamers of large tonnage ascend the river as far as Grafton, 42 miles from the sea. The area of country drained by the Clarence is over 8,000 square miles, or nearly half as large again as the basin of the Thames, whose course, although about as long as that of the Clarence, is navigable for only 60 miles.

Two short rivers, the Bellinger and the Nambucca, both navigable for some distance by small craft, enter the Pacific between the Clarence and Trial Bay.

Into Trial Bay, the Macleay, one of the principal rivers of the coast, discharges, after a course of 200 miles from its source near Ben Lomond. With its principal feeders, the Guyra, the Apsley, and the Chandler, the Macleay drains an area of 4,800 square miles of country, the upper part of which, especially that portion through which the Apsley flows, is extremely rugged and precipitous. Series of waterfalls, some of which have a perpendicular descent of over 200 feet, mark the course of this

stream, as it runs through narrow gorges whose sides rise in places to a height of about 2,000 feet; in its lower course the valley widens very considerably into magnificent alluvial plains. The Macleay is navigable for more than 30 miles, as far as the town of Greenhills, a few miles above Kempsey. The country through which it flows is for the most part thickly timbered.

The Hastings is the next stream met with, and empties itself into the sea at Port Macquarie. The country which it drains is rich, undulating, and densely wooded, and the area within its watershed is 1,400 square miles. Its chief arm is formed by the Wilson and Maria Rivers, on the left bank, the latter joining the main stream a few miles above Port Macquarie.

The Manning rises in the Main Dividing Range, and flows almost due east. The valley through which it flows is densely wooded, and the agricultural land on both sides of the river is unsurpassed for fertility. The Manning has a length of 100 miles, and, like most of the rivers of the seaboard, its course lies through undulating country, broken in the upper portion, but widening out as it nears the sea. Its chief tributary is the Barrington, on the right bank; on the left, it receives the Barnard River, the Dawson, the Lansdowne, the Nowendoc, Rowley's River, and other small streams. The Manning is navigable for ocean-going vessels as far as Wingham, about 20 miles from its mouth.

Before reaching the Hunter, several small streams are met with, amongst which may be mentioned the Wollomba and Maclean, falling into Wallis Lake; the Myall, which empties into Myall Lake; and the Karuah, which reaches the ocean at Port Stephens.

The Hunter is one of the chief rivers of the state, and has its source in the Liverpool Range. It flows first in a southerly direction until its confluence with the Goulburn; thence it takes an easterly course, and reaches the sea at Port Hunter, on the shores of which is situated the city of Newcastle. The Hunter receives numerous tributaries. The chief of these, in addition to the Goulburn, already mentioned, are the Wollombi, the Paterson, and the Williams. With its tributaries, the Hunter drains a country extending over 11,000 square miles an area more than twice as large as the basin of the Thames. The river is navigable for ocean-going vessels as far as Morpeth, 34 miles from the sea; whilst the Paterson and the Williams are both navigable, the one for a distance of 18 miles, and the other for 20 miles. The upper courses of the main river and its branches are through hilly, if not mountainous districts; but its lower course is mainly through rich, sandy, alluvial flats. Through its lower course, the river drains the largest and most important coal-field in Australia. The length of the Hunter is over 200 miles.

Though less important than the Hunter, from a commercial point of view, the Hawkesbury, which reaches the sea at Broken Bay, is none the less one of the finest rivers of the eastern seaboard. It is formed

by the united waters of many streams, each of considerable local importance. Its chief tributaries come from the table-land or gorges of the Blue Mountains, but the principal branch of the river itself rises in the main range, farther south. The range forming the watershed between the Hawkesbury and the streams flowing eastward, leaves the main range near Lake Bathurst, runs north-easterly, and terminates at the sea near Coalcliff.

Under the name of the Wollondilly, the Hawkesbury has its source not many miles from Goulburn. Flowing past that town, it proceeds in a northerly direction until it receives the waters of the Cox River, which come from the Blue Mountains, after passing through wild gorges, wherein may be found some of the most magnificent scenery in Australia. From the junction of the Cox River the stream is known as the Warragamba, which name it retains until its junction with the Nepean. Though smaller than the Warragamba, the Nepean gives its name to the united waters of the two streams. After receiving the Nepean, the river flows along the foot of the Blue Mountains, through a rich valley highly cultivated. From the Blue Mountains it is augmented by the waters of two streams, the Grose and the Colo, and from the junction of the latter the river is called the Hawkesbury. Still running northward, it is joined by the Macdonald, an important stream, navigable for some distance above its confluence with the Hawkesbury. The Macdonald comes from the north, and joins the river on the left bank. After turning to the east, the Hawkesbury holds its course through broken country, the scenery of which has been pronounced equal to any other river scenery in the world, and finally reaches the sea at Broken Bay. Its course extends over 330 miles, and the drainage area may be set down as 8,000 square miles. Navigation is possible as far as Windsor, 70 miles from the mouth, and a little dredging would enable sea-going vessels to reach that town.

In the neighbourhood of Sydney, some small streams fall into Botany Bay. Two of these, the Woronora and George's River, have their sources on the eastern slope of the ranges in which the Nepean, Cordeaux, and Cataract rise, and after rapid courses unite their waters before falling into the bay.

Generally speaking, the rivers south of Sydney are of less importance than those to the north, as the width of the coastal strip narrows considerably. The Shoalhaven, nevertheless, merits more than passing notice. Rising in the coastal range and following the direction of the coast, it flows northerly through deep gullies, marked by magnificent scenery peculiarly Australian; then turning sharply to the east, it enters the alluvial plains, which are counted amongst the richest and most productive in the country. The Shoalhaven is 260 miles in length, but is navigable only for a few miles, and drains a district 3,300 miles in area. Farther south, in the narrow belt between the ranges and the sea, flow the Clyde, Moruya, Tuross, and Bega Rivers. They all pass through rich, undulating, agricultural country, and each has an average length

of 60 to 70 miles. The Towamba River, at the extreme south of the state, empties itself into the Pacific at Twofold Bay.

The physical aspect of the eastern rivers is much the same, their upper courses being amidst broken and mountainous districts, and their lower waters flowing through undulating country with rich alluvial flats along their banks, for the most part highly cultivated. Where uncultivated, the country is densely covered with timber, some of which attains a magnificent growth, yielding the finest hardwood, and, in the north, cedar and pine.

Though belonging to another river system, the upper basin of the Snowy River is situated in New South Wales. This river receives the snow-fed streams rising on the southern slopes of the Monaro Range, its principal tributaries being the Bombala and the Eucumbene. The Snowy River and its tributaries water a considerable portion of the highest table-land of the state, between the mountain ranges of which are found large tracts of arable land. After leaving New South Wales, the Snowy has a rapid and tortuous course, and finally enters the sea between Cape Howe and Bass Straits, in the state of Victoria. The area of its watershed in New South Wales is about 2,800 square miles.

The western watershed of the state is, in its physical features and geographical character, the antithesis of the eastern. Instead of a narrow strip of country shut in by the sea and mountains, and intersected by numerous short rivers with a rapid flow, the western watershed forms a vast basin through which the quiet waters of a few great rivers have their long though uncertain courses. The rivers of the western region all belong to the fluvial system of the Murray, which carries to the Southern Ocean, through the state of South Australia, the drainage of a watershed immense in extent, embracing the northern portion of Victoria and the western and larger part of New South Wales, and reaching almost to the centre of Queensland.

The Murray, or Hume, the southern branch of this vast river system, rises in the Snowy Mountains, from which its three principal sources, the Hume, the Tooma, and the Indi descend. The first two of these streams rise on the northern and western slopes of Mount Kosciusko; the Indi, which is really the main river, has a longer course, rising in a gully near the Pilot Mountain, at an elevation of 5,000 feet above the sea From the confluence of these rivers the Murray rapidly descends towards the plains below Albury, where it is only 490 feet above sea level, with a course of 1,439 miles still to run. From Albury downwards the river receives many tributaries on both banks, those from New South Wales being the most important. Above Albury the tributaries are for the most part mountain torrents, carrying to the main stream the melted snows of the Australian Alps. In its lower course, however, the Murray is augmented, through the Murrumbidgee and the Darling, by the waters of secondary systems as important as its own.

Before being joined by the Murrumbidgee, the Murray receives, from a series of ana-branches, the drainage of a large portion of the country lying between the two main streams. The Billabong Creek runs almost through the centre of the plain spreading between the Murray and Murrumbidgee; in the middle of its course it communicates with the latter river, through Colombo and Yanko Creeks, whilst on the south it feeds the Murray by the channel of the Edward River. The Edward itself is an important stream. With the Wakool, Tupal, and Bullatale Creeks, and many other smaller and less important water-courses, it forms a fluvial system, interlacing the whole country from Tocumwal to the Murrumbidgee junction, which has been aptly named Riverina. From its farthest source at the foot of the Pilot Mountain to the town of Albury, the Murray has a length of 280 miles; thence to the Darling River junction its course is 852 miles; and from that point to the sea, below Lake Alexandrina, it is 587 miles in length. The river has thus a total course of 1,719 miles, of which 1,250 are between the states of Victoria and New South Wales. It has been navigated as far as the Ournie gold-field, about 150 miles above Albury, and 1,590 miles from its mouth.

Its

The Murrumbidgee has its source at the foot of a hill overlooking the Coolamon Plains, at a height of nearly 5,000 feet above the sea. course first shapes itself southward, but near the town of Cooma it takes a sharp curve and runs in a northerly direction until it approaches Yass. Here it curves again, trending to the west in a line parallel to the Murray; but turning south-west on receiving the Lachlan, it finally joins the main river after a course of 1,350 miles. The area drained by the Murrumbidgee is estimated at 15,400 square miles. In the upper part of its course it receives from both sides numerous rivers and creeks, the most important of which are the Umaralla, Molonglo, and Yass Rivers on its right, and the Goodradigbee and Tumut Rivers on its left bank. All these flow through mountainous country over a series of plateaux, which from the Coolamon and Coorangorambula Plains to the plains round Gundagai and Wagga successively diminish in height from 5,000 feet to 720 feet and 607 feet above the sea.

The chief tributary of the Murrumbidgee is the Lachlan, rising in the Main Dividing Range, where its principal feeders also have their source. These are the Boorowa, Crookwell, Abercrombie, and Belubula-all rapid streams, occasionally swollen by melted snows from the tableland. After receiving the Boorowa, the Lachlan flows to the Murrumbidgee, through 500 miles of plain country, without receiving any tributary of a permanent character. The water-courses which carry off the surplus water from the plains on each side of the river, only reach it in time of flood. The total length of the stream is 700 miles, and its basin has an area of 13,500 square miles. The lines of demarcation between the Lachlan basin and that of the Murrumbidgee on the south and of the Darling on the north-west, are hardly perceptible on the ground, so flat is the country through which these great rivers flow.