supply of Constantinople is from streams, springs and rainfall in the forests where reservoirs impound the waters that are conducted in aqueducts, one of which was built during the reign of Constantine.

Several rainfall maps of Europe have been made and these may be consulted for further information on this subject. However, it may be stated that all western and northern Europe are abundantly supplied with copious rains and all the mountains with heavy falls of snow that supply the headquarters of its large rivers flowing to the salted seas on the north, west and south. They supply populous areas in many parts of Europe.

Africa. In the continent of Africa precipitation ranges from 1.5 inches in Egypt to 20 inches on the southwestern coast and to heavy rainfall in its tropical areas. In Abyssinia it ranges from 30 to 40 inches supplying some tributaries of the Nile. Along the southeastern coast facing the Indian Ocean the rainfalls is 50 inches while in the interior of South Africa it ranges from 5 to 24 inches and at some places on the east coast it is only 40 inches. At Johnannesburg, it averages 30 inches, at Paarl and Weltevreden in Cape Colony it averaged for 14 years 34.67 to 35.97 inches. The annual rainfall at Durban is 42.46 inches and at East London, South Africa, it is 62.11 inches. Heavy fogs dampen some areas where there is but little rainfall.

Asia. In Arabia are great waterless deserts while in some mountain areas living springs of water are found. There is some rainfall in northern and central Arabia. At Dhala in 1892 there was over 18 inches, while at Aden it averaged 2.97 inches. Sir A. Houtum-Schindler found the mean annual rainfall at Teheran for 15 years to average 9.86 inches and reported that at 15 stations in Persia for various years it ranged from 3.24 inches at Jask to 56.45 inches at Resht. The average at all these sections was about 17 inches.

Asia presents so many physical formations of mountain ranges, elevated plateaus, great river basins, extensive arid regions, varying climates and oceanic influences as to cause excessive precipitation of rain and snow in some great mountain areas and little in some other sections. Only a few measurements can be given. The mean annual precipitation over the Caspian watersheds is 7 to 8 inches, over the Aral Sea 6 inches, in western Syria facing the Mediterranean a moderate rainfall, at Beirut it is 21.66 inches, at Jerusalem, 36.22 inches. The normal rainfall over Palestine is about 28 inches, while in the vicinity of the Lebanon range it is copious. There is very little rainfall east of Damascus and over eastern Syria. Between the Orontes and Euphrates some of the slight rainfall is caught and stored up for the water supply. The water of the springs in the vicinity of Mount Lebanon is conducted into cisterns and conserved for domestic and agricultural purposes. Hundreds of water-wheels, operated by the current of the Orontes, or by animal power lift its waters to supply communities along its banks and to irrigate agricultural districts. Astride the Orontes 120 miles north of Damascus is the land of Hamath, supplied by six or more great undershot water-wheels, some 80 feet in diameter,

that raise the water of the river into conduits extending through the city. Other sections are supplied with water drawn from wells by endless ropes carrying buckets and operated by camels turning vertical spindles. Irrigation in its primitive form is practised in parts of Syria. The Romans also practised it about the Sea of Tiberias, where the remains of aqueducts may still be seen. The waters of the Abana rushing down over wheels placed in the falls of the Anti-Lebanon ranges develop power to propel the street cars of Damascus and to light that ancient city, which obtains its water supply through conduits from the same sources. In Asia Minor swept by the cool winds of the Black Sea there is much snow and there are occasional heavy rains. It has many springs fed by the underground flow produced by the melting snows of its high mountains. It has some lakes, whose waters are somewhat depleted during the long dry season. In 1912, Dutch engineers designed and French contractors constructed irrigation works to utilize the waters of Bey-Sjehir and Jaila lakes and a canal connecting with the Tsjartpjamba River to irrigate 126,000 acres of Konia Plain.

Over the territory extending from the Jordan to the Persian Gulf there is slight rainfall and much of it is a desert uninhabited.

In Siberia there is much snow and little rainfall. The latter ranges from 8 inches from Persia to Tobolsk and increases to 12 inches over Amur watersheds. Snow falls over vast areas in great quantities and in the mountains remains most of the year, feeding its lengthy rivers and its numberless lakes. Some of these, such as Baikal 400 miles long by 20 to 50 miles wide and Lake Kossogol 120 miles long by 50 miles, cover great areas in a basin that was once a much longer lake. In eastern Siberia rainfall averages from 15 to 20 inches. In Manchuria and northern China between the Volga and the Lena the rainfall ranges from 19 to 29 inches.

In China it ranges from 23 inches at Peking to 78 inches at Canton, which is swept by monsoons. It is only 5 to 7 inches in the north of Mongolia. In some coastal regions it amounts to 100 inches. Over the coastal regions of the Malay Peninsula the rainfall ranges from 75 to 200 inches and over places in Java it is 78 inches, at Singapore it is 97 inches. Siam is occasionally swept by monsoons and the rainfall ranges from 180 inches at Mergni to 240 inches at Monlmein. At some other places it averages from 42 to 54 inches.

In India there is the greatest variation in precipitation in Asia. In its western coastal and Himalaya regions rainfall ranges from 75 to 100 inches on the west to 250 inches at elevated localities, also in the west up to 610 inches in the Khasi Hills, where for a decade it averaged 550 inches. If entirely caught and conserved it would form a column of water 45 feet high. At Cherrapunji for 40 years it averaged 426 inches. At Calcutta it averaged 65 inches. At Ceylon from 60 to 80 inches. At Madras 55 inches. At Bombay 75 inches and in the valley of the Ganges it falls to 25 inches and in that of the Indus to 6 inches. At Poovah it is 24 inches. North of Punjab, it ranges from 70 to 80 inches and also that amount on some of the lateral spurs of the Himalayas.

There are no available records of precipitation in countries to the north of India, but they are light, cold and covered with snows, which are their principal source of water supply. In Burma on the west coast it averages from 157 to 196 inches. Over the Irrawadi Valley in Burma it is only 39.27 inches, but in the delta it averages 98.42 inches. In Japan the average rainfall over the whole country is 61.8 inches.

Australasia and Oceanica. In Australia rainfall varies greatly in different sections. At Brisbane it averages 50 inches, at other places 70 inches. At Melbourne it averages 25.6 inches, at Port Phillip from 20 to 30 inches, at Adelaide 20 inches and in some parts of the Eyre Peninsula only 10 inches and this average extends to more than 3 of the continent. In South Australia it averages from 8 to 10 inches. In 1889 the Department of Mines at Sydney collated rainfall data and estimated the amount at 50 or more watering places in Australia. Those showed the weekly rainfall to range from of an inch in some localities to an inch in others and still others it ranged from 2.25 to 3.10 inches. In most of the inhabited regions of New Zealand, rainfall ranges from 30 to 50 inches per annum. In New South Wales it ranges from 12 to 46 inches. At Hay it ranges from 10.94 to 25.84 inches.

In the Philippines there is great variation in rainfall. At Manila it averages 76 inches and ranges from 16.2 to 152 inches over different islands. At Kauai, one of the Hawaiian islands, it averaged for 4 years 518 inches. On the island of Mauritius rainfall on the east coast has been as high as 141 inches and on the west coast at the same time it averaged only 27.95 inches.

In Java a rainfall ranges from 70 inches at Batavia to 174 inches at Buitenzorg.

Except as otherwise stated, the foregoing are approximately the mean annual precipitation over the localities mentioned, as nearly as the measurements extending in most cases over a period of years disclosed. They furnish some data that may be considered in estimating such sources of their water supply.

Robert Lauterberg, meteorologist of Switzerland, once suggested that most measurements fail to give all the rainfall and that ordinary measurements must be increased 25 per cent to arrive at the actual precipitation.

There are, however, many instances of wellknown departures from the amounts heretofore given, when in wet years or cycles of years, or localities of excessive precipitation, the maximum precipitation is greater than the mean annual precipitation. There are also dry years or cycles of years and dry localities, when the minimum precipitation is less than the mean annual precipitation. Such extremes are not constant, but may be considered in determining the hydrology of a given locality.

The foregoing records and measurements of rainfall are the mean annual precipitation over periods of years. Excessive precipitation, however, occurs in storms, when the hourly and daily rates in the localities affected may be extraordinary. Such storms are usually of short duration and are confined to small areas. Records of some of such excessive precipitations and of monthly tabulations in localities, where meteorological stations are maintained, are ob

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tainable from the reports of the weather bureaus of this and other countries. Most of such measurements are included in the general averages of mean annual rainfall hereinbefore stated.

Disposition of Precipitation,- The disposition of rainfall or precipitation is quite fully considered in the article on "Water Supply," which is to follow under that title in a succeeding volume of this encyclopedia.

HENRY W. HILL, President of the New York State Waterways Association; author of Waterways and Canal Construction in the State of New York, etc.

RAINIER, rä'nēr', Mount. An old volcanic cone in central western Washington, named from Admiral Rainier of the British navy by Vancouver the navigator, who saw it from Puget Sound in 1793. It is also known by the Indian name of Tacoma Peak and rises about 56 miles southwest of the city of Tacoma. Its altitude is 14,408 feet or about 8,000 feet higher than the adjoining Cascade Mountain region. It was once thought to be the highest peak in the United States but Mount Whitney in California is 93 feet higher and a few peaks in the Rocky Mountains in Colorado exceed it slightly. Its upper part is mostly covered by snow and ice, the latter in 11 main glaciers radiating from the summit like the arms of a great starfish. The glaciers are from four to six miles long and equal in size and beauty those in the Alps. The larger one extends down to 4,000 feet. A luxuriant forest extends part way up the slopes, and the timber line is between 7,000 and 7,500 feet. Around the base are many natural meadows of most picturesque character with profusion of summer flowers. The peak, "the noblest of the fire-mountains which, like beacons, once blazed along the Pacific Coast," is the remains of a huge volcano built up of thick layers of lava and originally 2,000 feet or more higher, its top having been blown off by a great explosion a few centuries ago. A large crater resulted from this eruption and several small cones and craters have since been built. The latest eruptions were slight ones in 1843, 1854, 1858 and 1870. Now the only activity is a slight emission of steam at one locality. The first ascent by a scientific observer was made by S. F. Emmons in 1870.

In 1897 it was ascended and thoroughly explored by a large party. "Almost 250 feet higher than Mount Shasta, its nearest rival in grandeur and in mass," they described it as "overwhelmingly impressive both by the vastness of its snow-capped summit, its glacial mantle and by the striking sculpture of its cliffs." The total area of its glaciers amounts to 45 square miles, an expanse of ice far exceeding that of any other single peak in the United States. The region now forms the fully protected Mount Rainier National Park created by act of Congress approved 2 March 1899. Centred by the towering mass of Mount Rainier, the park reserve is nearly a perfect square, the sides of which are 18 miles in length and contains 324 square miles, or sections of 640 acres each (207,360 acres). It is completely surrounded by lands embraced within the Rainier National Forest. Every year large numbers of tourists visit the park to camp in its meadows, and occasional ascents are made to the summit

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of the mountain. Consult Mount Rainier National Park, and Annual Report by the supervisor of the Mount Rainier National Park (Washington, D. C., Department of the Interior, 1915 et seq.).

was

RAINS, George Washington, American military officer and scientist: b. Craven County, N. C., 1817; d. Newburgh, N. Y., 21 March 1898. He was graduated from West Point in 1842, served in the engineering corps, transferred to the artillery, and in 1844 46 was assistant professor of chemistry, mineralogy and geology at West Point. He served on the staffs of Generals Scott and Pillar in the Mexican War, and received brevet rank of major, was active in the Seminole War, and in 1856 he resigned from the army and engaged in business. At the outbreak of the Civil War he entered the Confederate service, was commissioned a colonel and placed in charge of the building and equipment of a powder mill at Augusta, Ga., where he remained until the end of the war, receiving promotion to the rank of brigadier-general. In 1867 he became professor of chemistry and pharmacy in the University of Georgia, and was dean of the faculty there till 1884. He was interested in mechanics, and secured several patents on his inventions for improvements for steam-engines. He wrote Steam Portable Engines (1860); 'Rudimentary Course of Analytical and Applied Chemistry (1872); 'History of the Confederate Powder Works' (1882), etc.

RAINSFORD, William Stephen, American Episcopal clergyman: b. Dublin, Ireland, 30 Oct. 1850. He was graduated from Saint John's College, Cambridge, in 1872, took orders in the English Church, and in 1873-76 was curate at Saint Giles', Norwich, England. In 1876 he came to the United States and engaged in evangelistic services in New York. He was assistant rector at Saint James Cathedral, Toronto, 1876-83, and in the last-named year became rector of Saint George's Church, New York, from which he resigned in 1906. Under his management the work of the parish was greatly extended and many societies and missions were established in connection with it. He became widely known as an earnest, fearless and eloquent preacher. He published Sermons Preached in Saint George's'; 'Reasonableness of Faith (1902); A Preacher's Story of His Work (1904); Reasonableness of the Religion of Jesus' (1913), etc.

RAINY LAKE, Canada, between Lakes Superior and Winnipeg, forms part of the boundary between Canada and the United States. It is very irregular in form, but about 55 miles in northeast by southwest dimensions, and mostly three to five miles wide. It receives the waters of numerous small lakes from the east and northeast, and empties itself by Rainy River, about 90 miles long, into the Lake of the Woods.

RAISIN INDUSTRY, The American, is confined almost wholly to California. The raisin crop comes from the great San Joaquin Valley and from several counties in southern California. The California raisin grape culture began to be of commercial importance in 1874, when the output was 9,000 boxes, or 180,000 pounds of raisins. The industry advanced "by leaps and bounds" up to 1894, when the crop amounted to 103,000,000 pounds. The markets "broke" under this great output, and the crop sold for less than two cents per pound. As a result there was a sharp decline both in the acreage and in the output of raisins during the next four or five years. However, the growers protected themselves and their market by forming, in 1898, a Raisin Growers' Association, which controlled about 90 per cent of the yield. It had under contract in 1917, 155,000 acres of grapes. This association still continues to handle the bulk of the raisin crop, and has been quite successful in distributing to the best advantage the large output in the different markets. As a result the California raisin industry has had a phenomenal growth. It prospered because of the war since raisins are such a convenient and satisfactory fruit for shipping. Nearly all the raisins of the United States come from 11 counties of California, and 60 per cent of the product is from Fresno. The California product of raisins was 1913, 130,000,000 pounds; 1914, 182,000,000 pounds; 1915, 256,000,000 pounds; 1916, 264,000,000 pounds.

Of the 1916 product 178,000,000 pounds were Muscats, and 47,000,000 Thompson's Seedless. Before 1896 the United States was a large importer of raisins. From 1887 to 1891 the average importation was 38,500,000 pounds; from 1892 to 1896 the average was 17,746,000 pounds; it is now negligible, and a large export trade is developing. In 1914 the exports were 14,766,000 pounds of the value of $998,000; in 1915 the export was 24,895,000 pounds valued at $1,719,000; and in 1916, 75,014 pounds, of the value of $5,407,000. The raisins are packed and graded into layers, and one, two and three crown loose. The processes of curing, seeding and packing raisins have been improved from time to time, and to-day machines do much of the work formerly done by hand. The first great device was a patent seeder, and the latest one is a raisin-packing machine, by which the packages, or cartons, are filled, weighed and sealed.

The leading varieties of grapes used for raisins are the Muscat and Thompson's Seedless. Grapes are ripe by the middle of August, and the season often lasts into November. The average time of drying and curing a tray of raisins is about three weeks, all depending on the weather. The earliest picked grapes dry in 10 days, and the later ones often take four weeks and even more. The method of drying is very simple. The bunches are cut from the vines and placed on shallow trays two feet wide, three feet long, and one inch high, on which the grapes are allowed to sun-dry, being turned from time to time by simply placing an empty tray ton side down on the full one, then turning both over, and taking off the top tray, After the raisins are dried they are stored away in the sweat boxes until they are packed and prepared for shipment. Some of the larger

growers, in order not to run so much risk in drying on account of rain, and also to enable them to handle the crop fast enough. have curing houses, where the curing is finished after having been partially done outside. The seeding, grading, packing and shipping have become separate branches.

RAISIN RIVER, Battle of. See FRENCHTOWN, MICHIGAN, BATTLE OF.

RAJA, rä'jä, or RAJAH, a title of hereditary princes of the Hindus. The Hindustani form is rai, and it has also been rendered ras, rana and rawal. Before the subjugation of the country by the Moguls the various countries of Hindustan were governed by rajas, who belonged to the Kshatriyas or military caste. They were sometimes independent rulers and again feudatory, and the highest title, "Maharaja," was given to those who controlled other sovereigns. The title is now usually merely honorary and is not confined to any caste, while those retaining some degree of actual authority under the British are now designated "Maharaja." Consult Foy, 'Die königliche Gewalt nach den altindischen Rechtsbüchern' (1895); Jolly, 'Recht und Sitte' (1896).

RAJAMANDRY, rä-jä-măn'drē, or RAJAMAHENDRI, India, a town of the Godavari district, Madras, on the east bank of the Godavari (here three miles wide), 30 miles from the sea. Among buildings and institutions are the courthouse and judge's residence, churches, mission of the American Evangelical Lutheran Church, provincial college, several schools, museum, dispensary, public garden and large prison. Pop. 30,408.

RĀJATARANGINĪ, rä'ją-ta-rän'ge-në (Sanskrit "Stream of Kings"), a Sanskrit chronicle of the kings of Kashmir, written by Kalhana about the middle of the 12th century. The history is written in eight cantos and has about 8,000 verses. It is remarkable as the only work in Sanskrit literature, yet discovered, with any historical value. The work makes use of earlier writings now lost and the first six books cover the period commencing with traditional history of early times down to the reign of Sangrama Déva, 1006; two later books, believed to be the work of Kalhana, bring the history down to the reign of Singha Deva, about 1156. The existence of the work first became known to Mohammedans in 1588, when during Akbar's invasion, a copy was given to the emperor. An edition was published in the Sanskrit text (Calcutta 1835); the text and translation by Troyer (Paris 1840, 1852); and there are translations by Datta (Calcutta 1898) and by Stein (Westminster 1900).

RAJMAHAL, răj-ma-häl', India, on the eminence overlooking the Ganges, 170 miles northwest of Calcutta, for many years capital of Bengal. It is now noteworthy only for its palatial ruins, and as a station in an important transit trade. The range of hills on which it stands bears the same name. These hills include a plateau with an area of 1,366 miles and support a population of hillmen or "Paharias," numbering about 75,000. The sides of the plateau are unusually steep and ascent is made largely by artificial stone steps. Consult Bradley-Bist, 'Story of an Indian Upland' (1905).

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RAJON, rä-zhôn, Paul Adolphe, French etcher: b. Dijon C. 1842; d. Anvers, 8 June 1888. He was trained at the École des Beaux Arts at Paris, and in 1865 produced his first etching after Meissonnier 'Rembrandt at Work. His many subsequent works won for him the leading position among French etchers, and on visiting England in 1872 he found his reputation had preceded him and was commissioned to make an etched copy of John Stuart Mill's portrait by George Frederick Watts and of Tennyson's portrait by the same painter. He was eminently successful in these and other portrait etchings, but his most ambitious and brilliant work was 'The Emperor Claudis' after Alma Tadema.

RAJPUTANA, räj-poo-tä'na, India, a western political division, lying between 18 native controlled states and two chief ships. It consists of Sind and the Junjab; together with the British enclave of Ajmir-Merwara. The total area of the native states is 127,541 English square miles; or including the British district of Ajmir-Merwara, 130,462 square miles. The maharajas and rajas are supreme in their own states, and settle disputes among themselves in courts of their own. A great portion of the surface of Rajputana is desert, and part of it wholly destitute of inhabitants, water and vegetation. The whole of the soil is remarkably saline, containing many salt lakes, and much of the well-water is brackish. The rainfall is scanty, and the region frequently suffers from famine. In many places it is covered with the cactus and other prickly shrubs; except in the Aravalli Hills which traverse the region from southwest to northeast, the territory is almost destitute of trees. Where practicable, pastoral and agricultural pursuits occupy the people. Conditions have slightly improved since British enterprise has opened up the country by a transversal line of railroad, with diverging branches, connecting with the rest of the Peninsular Railway system. The chief town is Jaipur (Pop. 137,000); other urban centres are Bikanir, Jodhpur Bhartpur, Udaipur and Tonk. While the chiefs are of Rajput origin, the Rajput element is in the minority among the population, which consists chiefly of Hindus, with Mohammedans, Animists and Jains. Pop. 10,530,432.

RAJPUTS, räj-poots', a people of India, giving their name to Rajputana (q.v.), and said to be a branch of the Kshatriyas, one of the four great castes into which the Hindus were originally divided. They are essentially a military people, and many of their institutions bear a strong resemblance to the feudal customs which prevailed in Europe in the Middle Ages. They are celebrated for their chivalrous spirit in marked contrast to the usual effeminacy and duplicity of many of the Oriental nations. The practice of female infanticide, however, at one time was prevalent among them, until suppressed by British influence; the profuse use of opium has likewise in many cases produced a lamentable deterioration in their physical and moral state. Notwithstanding these drawbacks the Rajput character contains much that is noble and generous. The Rajputs became first connected with the British government under the governorship of the Marquis of Wellesley, in the beginning of the 19th century. They num

ber about 700,000. Besides Rajputana, the Rajputs are numerous in Sind and Guzerat.

RÁJSHAHI, räj-shä'hë, India, a division or commissionership of Bengal, extending from the Ganges to Sikkim and Bhutan. Area, 17,351 square miles; pop. about 8,489,788. The district of Rajshahi, forming part of the division, has an area of 2,330 square miles; a population of about 1,400,000. The capital of the division and district is Rámpur Beauleah.

RÁKÓCZY, rä'kōt-së, a Transylvanian princely family now extinct in the male line. They were for some time rulers of the principality of Siebenbürgen, or Transylvania, and by a rigorous maintenance of the civil and religious rights of the inhabitants made their influence over their subjects such as to render them formidable to the power of the royal house of Austria. The first prince of the name was SIGISMUND RÁKÓCZY, who obtained the government in 1606, but abdicated in favor of Gabriel Bathori in 1608. His son, GEORGE RÁKÓCZY (b. 1591; d. 24 Oct. 1648), assumed the sovereignty in 1629 and regained for his subjects many lost privileges. He was succeeded by his son GEORGE II (b. 1615; d. 8 July 1676), who attempted an invasion of Poland, was defeated and forced to abdicate, but regained his authority. He died after having been again forced to resign. His son, Francis I, never reigned, but was implicated in various political complications and the last of the family to hold sovereign power was his grandson, Francis II (q.v.).

RÁKÓCZY, Francis II, Transylvanian prince: b. 27 March 1676; d. Rodosto, Turkey, 8 April 1735. His attempts to free his country from Austrian rule resulted in his being sentenced to death for high treason, but he contrived to escape, rallied the Hungarians to his support and was proclaimed protector. The alliance of certain of the Hungarian states with Austria afterward caused his defeat and he resigned his estates and went to Turkey. He wrote Mémoirs sur les revolutions de Hongrie' (1738).

RÁKÓCZY MARCH, the name of a Hungarian military air by an unknown composer of the 17th century, said to have been the favorite march of Francis Rákóczy II of Transylvania. See NATIONAL HYMNS.

RALE, räl (spelled also incorrectly, RASLE, RASLES, and RALLE), Sebastien, French Jesuit missionary in North America: b. FrancheComté, 4 Jan. 1657; d. Norridgewock, Maine, 23 Aug. 1724. In 1675 he became a Jesuit_novice at Ďôle, in 1677-84 was an instructor at Carpentras and Nimes, and in 1689 was sent to the Canadian missions. For two years he was among the Abenakis near the mouth of the Chaudière in the mission of Saint Francis. Then he passed two years among the Illinois, and finally was placed in charge of the Abenakis of Kennebec. He was believed by the English to be the cause of their difficulties with the Abenakis, and was accused of instigating attacks on the settlements and he was killed during an attack on the village of Norridgewock by New England militia assisted by Mohawks. This is inferred by pro-English historians from a letter to Rale from Vaudreuil, governor at Quebec, expressing satisfaction at Rale's success in uniting the savages against

the English, and agreeing to furnish military assistance, should it be required. This communication, dated 25 Sept. 1721, was among papers obtained by the expedition sent out from Boston under Colonel Westbrook to seize Rale in 1721, and is now preserved in the archives of Massachusetts. Among these papers, also, was Rale's dictionary of Abenaki, now in the Harvard library and printed in 1833, in the memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. See DUMMER'S WAR.

RALEIGH, SIR Walter, English military and naval commander, and author: b. Hayes Barton, a farmstead in the parish of East Budleigh, Devonshire, about 1552; beheaded, London, 29 Oct. 1618. He was the son of Walter Raleigh by his third wife, Katharine, daughter of Sir Philip Champernowne of Modbury, and widow of Otho Gilbert of Compton. Raleigh was educated at Oriel College, Oxford; served with the Huguenot army in France in 1569; remained there for five years or more; and, with his half-brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, engaged in voyages of "discovery and piracy - against the Spaniards in the West Indies. In 1579 he established himself at court in the friendship of men of influence - Leicester, Oxford, Sidney, Walsingham; he served with distinction in Ireland (1580-81); and then, returning to court in December of the latter year, he won, and for some years retained, the high favor of Elizabeth. Through her successive grants of monopolies and estates he became one of the wealthiest of her courtiers. In 1584 he was knighted; in 1585 he was appointed warden of the stannaries (i.e., of the mines of Devon and Cornwall), lord lieutenant of the latter county and vice-admiral of both; and in 158586 he was M.P. for Devon. He was also captain of the queen's guard.

From this period, while Raleigh was the favorite of Elizabeth, dates his chief connection with the exploration and settlement of North America. In 1584, '85, '86, '87 and '89, he sent expeditions to Virginia; but as the Queen forbade his personal participation, his efforts to colonize were unsuccessful. Raleigh's services against the Spanish Armada, 1588, were not conspicuous. He assisted in organizing the land forces, but there is no proof that he took any part in the sea-fighting. In 1591 and 1592 he was prominent in the preparation of squadrons for service against Spain, but was recalled from the latter expedition because of the queen's anger at Raleigh's intrigue with one of her maids of honor, Elizabeth Throgmorton. was soon set at liberty and his marriage to Elizabeth Throgmorton followed. Not until 1597, however, did Raleigh regain the queen's favor.

He

Meanwhile he was free to explore America in person. His objective point was Manoa, a city supposedly situated in South America and possessed of untold wealth. In 1595, with a fleet of five vessels, he captured the town of San Josef, Trinidad, and explored the Orinoco for 400 miles. He did not find Manoa; but his brilliant service in the English attack upon Cadiz (June 1596) and as commander at the taking of Fayal (1597) completed his restoration to favor. In 1597 he was made M.P. for Dorset; in 1601 for Cornwall. In 1600 he was appointed governor of Jersey.