freeze of 1886 destroyed all trees except those in the extreme southern part, where the mango is now confined. The market, which seems to be growing but is somewhat limited because of the prevailing ignorance regarding the fruit, is supplied mainly from the West Indies. California supplies little more than its home markets. The trees do best upon well-drained sandy land, and should be well supplied with potassic manures. They quickly fail to bear upon wet soils. They may be propagated by grafting, but since a large proportion of the varieties reproduce practically without change by seed this method is widely employed.

Several other species of mangoes are cultivated. For instance, the horse mango (M. fætida), a native of Malacca, is cultivated in India, and M. sylvatica, whose fruits are dried and used like prunes.

MANGO-BIRD. Several birds are called mango-birds in various parts of the world because they frequent mango-trees. The East Indian one is an oriole (Oriolus kundoo); the West Indian one, so called in Jamaica, is a humming-bird (Lampornis violacauda), which may occasionally visit Florida.

MANGO-FISH, one of the threadfins a small perch-like sea-fish (Polynemus plebijus) which is numerous along Oriental coasts, and approaches the shore and is caught at the time when mangoes ripen. The same name is sometimes given to a relative in the West Indies (Polydactylus virginicus), called barbudo in the Cuban markets.

MANGOSTEEN, a tree (Garcinia mangostana) of the family Guttiferæ, native of the East Indies, sometimes cultivated in tropical America. It is one of the best-known fruits of the East Indies, and by many people is considered the finest fruit known. The fruits are about the size of a mandarin orange and of similar shape, with a thick, red-purple rind; the flesh is snow-white or cream-colored, so delicate that it melts in the mouth, and of delicious flavor. So far, attempts to grow the tree in Florida have been unsuccessful, and as the fruit does not bear shipping well it is little known outside the regions where it is grown.

MANGROVE, măn'grōv, a genus of trees and shrubs (Rhizophora) of the family Rhizophoracea. The species, of which there are less than half a dozen, are all natives of the tropics, where they inhabit tidal marshes and the mouths of streams. They are remarkable for their aerial roots, which extend from the branches to the mud and then become trunks for the extension of the trees, which gradually advance even to low tidal mark; and also for their peculiar method of seed germination, the seeds sprouting while still attached to the twigs. The wood, which in some species is closegrained and durable, is used for fuel and to a small extent for other purposes; the bark, which is rich in tannic acid, is employed in tanning; the fruit of some species is edible and is used for wine making. The trees are important soil builders, their numerous roots serving to catch débris and by checking the current enhance the settling of mud from the water. Hundreds of acres of arable land have thus been formed in Florida, The best-known species is R. mangle.

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MANGROVE HEN, a West Indian clapper-rail (Rallus longirostris), which seeks its food in the mangrove swamps.

per,

MANGROVE SNAPPER, the gray snapan excellent food-fish, which abounds among the mangroves along the coasts of Florida and the Bahamas, and thence to Brazil. See SNAPPER.

MANGUANGAS, män-gwän'gäs, a collective name for a number of heathen tribes living in the forests of the island of Mindanao, Philippines. They are of the Malay race. See PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.

MANGUIANES, män-ge-änz', the natives of the interior of Mindoro, Romblon and Tablas (qq.v.), Philippines; they are divided into four branches, one of which is of Negrito blood, another is Mongoloid and the other two are of the Malayan race. There are several tribes, including the Bangot, the Buquil, etc. The term is also used in the island of Palawan to designate all wild natives of unknown origin. See PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.

MANGUM, măng găm, Willie Person, American legislator: b. Orange County, N. C., 1792; d. Red Mountain, N. C., 14 Sept. 1861. He was graduated from the University of North Carolina in 1815, was admitted to the bar in 1817, in 1818 was a member from Orange County of the lower house of the State legislature and in 1819 became a judge of the Superior Court. From 1 Dec. 1823 to 18 March 1826 he was a Whig representative in the 18th and 19th Congresses; but this post he resigned, and again he was elected a judge of the Superior Court. He retired from the court in 1826, but filled the office a third time in 1828-30. He was a United States senator from 5 Dec. 1831 to 1836, when he resigned, and from 9 Dec. 1840 to 3 March 1853; and in 1842-45 was president pro tempore of the Senate. Throughout nearly his entire term of service in Congress he was a leader of the Whigs; and in 1837 he received the 11 electoral votes from South Carolina for the Presidency of the United States.

MANGUM, Okla., village and county-seat of Greer County, on a fork of the Red River, about 150 miles southwest of Oklahoma city at a junction of the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, and the Wichita Falls and Northwestern railroads. It is situated in a rich agricultural district, and has cotton gins, grain elevators and flour and lumber mills. Pop. about 3,667.

MANHATTAN, one of the boroughs comprising the city of New York. See NEW YORK CITY.

MANHATTAN, Kan., city, county-seat of Riley County, on the Kansas River at the junction of the Big Blue, and on the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific and the Union Pacific railroads, about 50 miles west of Topeka. The surrounding region is mainly agricultural; limestone quarries are in the vicinity. The chief industrial establishments are a foundry, machine shops, flour mills, lumber and brick yards. Manhattan is the trade centre for a large section, and ships livestock, grain and limestone. The city is operated by the commission form of government, and owns and operates the waterworks. Pop. about 5,722.

MANHATTAN COLLEGE, an institution in Manhattan borough of New York City directed by the Christian Brothers. It was opened originally (1849) as an academy for young men, under the name of the Academy of the Holy Name, but the constant increase of the student body and the consequent demand for higher branches of study forced the academy to adopt the college courses, which was done in 1853, the academy being then incorporated under the name of Manhattan College. The courses lead to the degrees of B.A., M.A., B.S. and C.E. The resources of the college are derived from tuition only, there being no endowment. The institution reported at the end of 1917: professors and instructors, 26; students, 350; volumes in library, 14,000; value of ground and buildings, $625,000; income, $49,000; number of graduates, about 1,000.

South

MANICALAND, mä-ne'ka-lănd, Africa, a former territory of southern Rhodesia, situated on the border of Portuguese East Africa, east of Mashonaland, between the parallels of 18° and 21° S., and the meridians of 30° 30' and 33° E. It is now divided between Portuguese East Africa and Rhodesia. Manica is now a small district of the Portuguese territory. See RHODESIA.

MANICHEANS, măn-i-kế anz, the followers of Manes, Mani or Manichæus, as he is variously styled, a Gnostic teacher, whose opinions prevailed in western Asia and eastern Europe during the 4th and 5th centuries of our era. Manichæism is generally considered to be the Persian type of gnosis, as it is distinguished by Zoroastrian dualism, and other features of that system. Hebrew elements of religion and Buddhistic doctrines were also found in Manichæism, which appears to have been an electic jumble of wild fancies, among which the soberest and strongest dogmas of the Christian creed were sometimes seen to be embedded. The Dualism of Manes was conceived of .by him as manifested in two contiguous realms of light and darkness, good and evil. The kingdom of light included a heaven and an earth, the latter guarded by æons, or good spirits, and presided over by a spirit of goodness. From the kingdom of darkness sprang Satan and his evil angels. This confusion and mixture, in the universe, of light and darkness, originated before the creation of man, a creature of light and darkness combined in proportions varying in each individual. The human race is finally to be purged of darkness and sin. Jesus Christ was looked upon as dual in nature; there was Jesus who did not and could not suffer, Jesus impatibilis, a sort of phantom or immaterial personage, and Jesus patibilis, who suffered death upon the cross.

The practical side of Manichæism appears in the condemnation of marriage, or sexual indulgence of any sort, and the ascetic purification of hands, mouth or bosom, which kept the in

itiated from eating animal food, contracting ceremonial defilement through the touch and indulging the flame of human passion in the heart. There were two classes of disciples, the initiated, or perfecti, and the auditores, hearers, or novices. Saint Augustine of Hippo was, for nine years before his conversion to Christianity, a Manichæan hearer. These hearers lived a much less strict life than the perfecti, and consituted by far the majority of the Manichæan sect. The clergy of this sect were organized after the model of the Christian ministry; their rite of baptism was performed with oil instead of water; they had also a eucharistic meal among their public ceremonies. The system spread rapidly through the Roman Empire and competed with Neo-Platonism in hostility to the Church. Diocletian persecuted the Manichæans, and under Justinian the profession of Manichæism was a capital crime. The system, however, flourished in Asia beyond the 10th century and has reappeared in some shape or other, and under different names at different times in subsequent periods of European history. Consult Routh, Acta Disputationis Archelai (1848); Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History); De Beausobre, 'Histoire critique du Manichéisme' (1734), and Harnack, History of Dogma› (1897).

MANIFEST, in law, a written instrument delivered by the captain of a ship to the customs officials setting forth in detail the goods shipped, the consignors, etc. If there are passengers on board, this must be stated, and if the ship is about to proceed to a foreign port, the coal or other fuel on board must be set forth.

MANIFESTO, in international law, a declaration publicly issued at the commencement of a war by a contending power to show the causes which justify such a measure. Manifestoes are in the form of public letters; they commence with a short address to the public in general, and are signed with the name of the person who issues them. See LAW, INTERNATIONAL.

MANIFOLDS, Theory of. See ASSEMBLAGES. GENERAL THEORY OF.

MANIGAULT, Arthur Middleton, American soldier: b. Charleston, S. C., October 1824; d. 16 Aug. 1886. In 1846 he was elected first lieutenant of the Charleston company in the "Palmetto" regiment for the Mexican War, throughout which he served. In June 1861 he was elected colonel of the 10th regiment, South Carolina infantry, and in 1861-62 was in command of the 1st South Carolina military district. From the early part of 1862 he served in the army of the West successively under Bragg, Johnston and Hood, in 1862 was placed in command of a brigade, and in 1863 made brigadier-general. At Chickamauga he distinguished himself by his repeated assaults, and in the retreat before Sherman's invasion he did some vigorous fighting. His death was hastened by a wound received in the battle of Franklin, Tenn. (30 Nov. 1864). Subsequent to the war he was elected by the Democrats adjutant-general of South Carolina, serving until his death. MANIHOT. See CASSAVA.

MANILA, ma-nil'a or mä-në'lä, the capital of the Philippine Islands, the principal city of Luzon as well as of the archipelago. situated in lat. 14° 35′ 31′′ N. by long. 120° 58′ 8′′ E., lies

on both sides of the Pasig River, and has a frontage of four miles on the bay of Manila. The corporate jurisdiction for police purposes extends three miles from the shore over Manila Bay, making the total area under the police jurisdiction of the city 32 square miles or 20 square miles on land, and 12 on the bay. The name of the city is a corrupt form of a Tagalog word, originally written "Maynila," and means a species of shrub or brush which formerly grew on the site of the city. It is now applied not merely to the town within the walls, but to the whole region and the inhabitants included within the corporate limits. The most important divisions of the city are the walled town, particularly known as Manila, on the left bank of the river and Binondo on the right bank. Other districts, formerly more independent than at present, have retained their names and some degree of individuality. Immediately south of the walled town lies Ermita; farther on along the shore is Malate; and inland directly east of these lie Paco, Pandacan and Santa Ana. The most northern district on the shore of the bay is Tondo, and between this district and the lower part and mouth of the river lies San Nicolas. The other districts north of the Pasig are Quiapo, San Miguel, Sampaloc, Santa Cruz and Trozo.

The walled town was occupied chiefly by the members of the Spanish colony. Its streets are straight and run at right angles with one another, dividing the area within the wall into 54 blocks. The buildings have usually two stories, and are built like the houses of Spanish cities. It contains the cathedral, the principal religious houses and churches of the ecclesiastical orders, various schools, the University of Saint Thomas, the hospital of San Juan de Dios, the mint and the new city hall. This building was started by the Cosmopolitan Hospital Association in 1901 but owing to lack of funds remained uncompleted and was purchased and completed by the city authorities. The cathedral is an imposing building.

The north wall of the town extends along the bank of the Pasig. Around the outside of the rest of the wall runs a moat receiving water from the river just east of the town and emptying into the river just west of it. Until 1852 the drawbridges across the moat at the several gates were raised every evening at 11 o'clock, and lowered in the morning at 4. Since then it has not been customary to close the gates.

Only a few of the streets of Manila, of which there are about 80 miles, are paved. The rest are macadamized. European and American_retail shops occupy the Escolta, in Binondo. The street called Rosario is almost entirely given up to Chinese shops. The wholesale houses and the banks occupy the district north of the Pasig and west of the Bridge of Spain.

Miguel Lopez de Legaspi established Spanish authority at Manila in 1571, by a treaty with Lacandola, Rajah of Maynila, which was confirmed by the compact of blood made between the contracting parties. On 3 June 1571, he conferred upon Manila the title of "distinguished and ever loyal city." This title was subsequently confirmed by royal decree. He also gave the city a municipal organization, by appointing two alcaldes, one aguacil mayor and 12 regidores. He also appointed one notary for the cabildo, or corporation, and two notaries

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public for the court of the alcaldes. Later there were only eight regidores, but in addition a registrar and a constable. The alcaldes were justices, and were elected annually from the householders by the corporation. The regidores were aldermen and with the registrar and constable held office permanently as a proprietary right. The permanent positions in the cabildo could be bought and sold or inherited. This form of organization was maintained throughout the Spanish period.

In 1578 the church and all the inhabitants of Manila were separated from the jurisdiction of the archbishop of Mexico, and the church was erected into a cathedral, but the new bishop was subject to the archbishop of Mexico. On account of the long time needed to communicate between Spain and the Philippines the king ordered the governor of the islands to fill vacancies in the cathedral whenever they might

occur.

As early as the beginning of the 17th century the city of Manila was surrounded by a wall of hewn stone about three miles in circuit. It contained a college conducted by the Jesuits, a school for girls called the Santa Potenciana, two hospitals, one for Spaniards and one for Filipinos, a house of mercy for receiving sick slaves and furnishing lodgings to poor women and a hospital for Chinese. At this time there were within the walls about 600 houses built of stone and mostly occupied by Spaniards. There were also about 2,000 Chinese, with 200 shops, and a garrison of 200 soldiers.

In the war between England and Spain, in 1762, Vice-Admiral Samuel Cornish was ordered to proceed against Manila. He carried British and Sepoy forces under Sir William Draper. On 6 Oct. 1762 Archbishop Rajo, as acting governor, surrendered the city, agreeing to pay the British an indemnity of $4,000,000. Only a part of this was paid. The affairs of Manila were administered by the British military authorities until 10 Feb. 1763. After this Manila remained uninterruptedly under the control of the Spanish until 13 Aug. 1898, when it was surrendered to the authorities of the United States. On 20 August the military government opened the custom-house for business, continuing in force the Spanish tariff and customs regulations. In 1899 the Filipinos in insurrection made several attempts to destroy the city. The attempts on 4 and 22 February resulted disastrously to the insurrectos. A similar undertaking was planned for the occasion of General Lawton's funeral.

The political relation of Manila to the central government of the islands is not greatly unlike that which Washington holds to the Federal government of the United States. The city was incorporated by an act passed by the United States Philippine Commission on 31 July 1901. The government is vested in a municipal board of five members appointed by the civil government, with the advice and consent of the Commission. The municipal board has certain legislative and executive authority. The organic act provides also for a secretary and other officers, and prescribes their powers and duties. The insular government contributed to the municipality 30 per cent of the city's net expenditure, and the balance is met by funds derived from city taxes. To illustrate: the expenses for the fiscal year 1907 were